Overview: The differences of deity worshipping in the ancient world, the biblical conception of God, the inferior gods in Tanakh, and what makes Judaism unique as a monotheist belief system.
General difference between monotheism, monolatry, and polytheism
When it comes to the serving God, or gods, several phrases are used and it’s best to set the definitions straight before getting into the discussion of the Israelites’ and Torah’s view on the matter.
Monotheism, according to Britannica:
Monotheism, belief in the existence of one god, or in the oneness of God. As such, it is distinguished from polytheism, the belief in the existence of many gods, from atheism, the belief that there is no god, and from agnosticism, the belief that the existence or nonexistence of a god or of gods is unknown or unknowable. Monotheism characterizes the traditions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, and elements of the belief are discernible in numerous other religions.
Monolatry, according to Britannica:
The term monolatry has a connected but different sense; it refers to the worship of one god as supreme and sole object of the worship of a group while not denying the existence of deities belonging to other groups.
Polytheism, according to Britannica:
Polytheism, the belief in many gods. Polytheism characterizes virtually all religions other than Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, which share a common tradition of monotheism, the belief in one God. Sometimes above the many gods a polytheistic religion will have a supreme creator and focus of devotion, as in certain phases of Hinduism (there is also the tendency to identify the many gods as so many aspects of the Supreme Being); sometimes the gods are considered as less important than some higher goal, state, or savior, as in Buddhism; sometimes one god will prove more dominant than the others without attaining overall supremacy, as Zeus in Greek religion. Typically, polytheistic cultures include belief in many demonic and ghostly forces in addition to the gods, and some supernatural beings will be malevolent; even in monotheistic religions there can be belief in many demons, as in New Testament Christianity.
The monotheist voice in Torah
We will bring both the original Hebrew and the translation of the verses to be quoted, since these sensitive verses are often not served justice by their rough translations.
אַתָּה הׇרְאֵתָ לָדַעַת כִּי יְהֹוָה הוּא הָאֱלֹהִים אֵין עוֹד מִלְּבַדּוֹ׃
It has been clearly demonstrated to you-a that the LORD alone is God; there is none beside Him.
(Deut. 4:35)
וְיָדַעְתָּ הַיּוֹם וַהֲשֵׁבֹתָ אֶל־לְבָבֶךָ כִּי יְהֹוָה הוּא הָאֱלֹהִים
בַּשָּׁמַיִם מִמַּעַל וְעַל־הָאָרֶץ מִתָּחַת אֵין עוֹד׃
Know therefore this day and keep in mind that the LORD alone is God in heaven above and on earth below; there is no other.
(Deut. 4:39)
רְאוּ עַתָּה כִּי אֲנִי אֲנִי הוּא וְאֵין אֱלֹהִים עִמָּדִי אֲנִי אָמִית וַאֲחַיֶּה מָחַצְתִּי וַאֲנִי אֶרְפָּא וְאֵין מִיָּדִי מַצִּיל׃
See, then, that I, I am He; there is no god beside Me. I deal death and give life; I wounded and I will heal: none can deliver from My hand.
(Deut. 32:39)[1]
כֹּה־אָמַר יְהֹוָה מֶלֶךְ־יִשְׂרָאֵל וְגֹאֲלוֹ יְהֹוָה צְבָאוֹת אֲנִי רִאשׁוֹן וַאֲנִי אַחֲרוֹן וּמִבַּלְעָדַי אֵין אֱלֹהִים׃
Thus said the LORD, the King of Israel, their Redeemer, the LORD of Hosts: I am the first and I am the last, and there is no god but Me.
(Isa. 44:6)
The Canaanite/Ugaritic pantheon
The Canaanites and their primarily Ugaritic religion believed in a pantheon of gods. This consisted of many divine beings, or gods, that each served a specific role on Earth. At their head sat the Supreme God, whom they called EL, or EL Elyon. The Israelites, who spoke a Semitic language similar to that of the Canaanites, used the same generic phrase EL to denote “supreme God.” Thus, YHWH was His personal name and EL was his description, in Israelite literature.
Scholars have found much extra-biblical evidence of Canaanite worship of EL as the supreme deity, creator of heaven and earth,[2] the father of humankind, the husband of the goddess Asherah, and the parent of the many other gods. EL is found at the top of a gods-list in the royal library of the Ebla civilization in Syria, dated to about 2300 BCE. Canaanites for the most part thought of EL as too lofty to serve and needed intermediaries to relate to him, predominantly Baal (a son of EL) and Asherah (wife of EL). Other nations predominantly served other gods; Assyrians served their national god Ashur, Egypt served the sun-god Ra, and the Babylonians Marduk. Canaanite mythology also speaks of a Council of Gods.
They believed that the gods needed a home to reside as well as food, drink, and entertainment. They therefore built temples for their gods, sacrificed food, and poured liquids. They sang and blew trumpets in music. The Torah commanded these very same services of God.
The monolatrist/pantheon voice in Torah
What might come as a shock to some contemporary Orthodox believers, Tanakh makes sporadic yet vivid mention of other gods as being real divine beings. It talks of EL, or plural Elohim, as being the Supreme God, Creator of Heaven and Earth. It talks of a Council of Gods with Elohim at the helm surrounded by his inferiors. It speaks of the sons of God, as well as God in the form of a human. We will bring some examples:
EL as supreme God:
וַיֹּאמֶר אַבְרָם אֶל־מֶלֶךְ סְדֹם הֲרִמֹתִי יָדִי אֶל־יְהֹוָה אֵל עֶלְיוֹן קֹנֵה שָׁמַיִם וָאָרֶץ׃
But Abram said to the king of Sodom, “I swear to YHWH, EL Most High, Creator of heaven and earth.
(Gen. 14:22)
וּמַלְכִּי־צֶדֶק מֶלֶךְ שָׁלֵם הוֹצִיא לֶחֶם וָיָיִן וְהוּא כֹהֵן לְאֵל עֶלְיוֹן׃
And King Melchizedek of Salem brought out bread and wine; he was a priest of EL Most High.
(Gen. 14:18)
God in plural:
וַיֹּ֣אמֶר אֱלֹהִ֔ים נַֽעֲשֶׂ֥ה אָדָ֛ם בְּצַלְמֵ֖נוּ כִּדְמוּתֵ֑נוּ וְיִרְדּוּ֩ בִדְגַ֨ת הַיָּ֜ם וּבְע֣וֹף הַשָּׁמַ֗יִם וּבַבְּהֵמָה֙ וּבְכׇל־הָאָ֔רֶץ וּבְכׇל־הָרֶ֖מֶשׂ הָֽרֹמֵ֥שׂ עַל־הָאָֽרֶץ׃
And God said, “Let us make man in our image, after our likeness. They shall rule the fish of the sea, the birds of the sky, the cattle, the whole earth, and all the creeping things that creep on earth.”
(Gen. 1:26)
הָ֚בָה נֵֽרְדָ֔ה וְנָבְלָ֥ה שָׁ֖ם שְׂפָתָ֑ם אֲשֶׁר֙ לֹ֣א יִשְׁמְע֔וּ אִ֖ישׁ שְׂפַ֥ת רֵעֵֽהוּ׃
[YHWH said] Let us, then, go down and confound their speech there, so that they shall not understand one another’s speech.”
(Gen. 11:7)
כִּ֚י יֹדֵ֣עַ אֱלֹהִ֔ים כִּ֗י בְּיוֹם֙ אֲכׇלְכֶ֣ם מִמֶּ֔נּוּ וְנִפְקְח֖וּ עֵֽינֵיכֶ֑ם וִהְיִיתֶם֙ כֵּֽאלֹהִ֔ים יֹדְעֵ֖י ט֥וֹב וָרָֽע׃
but God knows that as soon as you eat of it your eyes will be opened and you will be like divine beings who know good and bad.”
(Gen. 3:5)
וַיֹּ֣אמֶר ׀ יְהֹוָ֣ה אֱלֹהִ֗ים הֵ֤ן הָֽאָדָם֙ הָיָה֙ כְּאַחַ֣ד מִמֶּ֔נּוּ לָדַ֖עַת ט֣וֹב וָרָ֑ע וְעַתָּ֣ה ׀ פֶּן־יִשְׁלַ֣ח יָד֗וֹ וְלָקַח֙ גַּ֚ם מֵעֵ֣ץ הַֽחַיִּ֔ים וְאָכַ֖ל וָחַ֥י לְעֹלָֽם׃
And YHWH God said, “Now that the man has become like one of us, knowing good and bad, what if he should stretch out his hand and take also from the tree of life and eat, and live forever!”
(Gen. 3:22)
Gods in Heavens:
כִּי מִי בַשַּׁחַק יַעֲרֹךְ לַיהֹוָה יִדְמֶה לַיהֹוָה בִּבְנֵי אֵלִים׃
For whom in the skies can equal YHWH, can compare with YHWH among the divine beings,
אֵל נַעֲרָץ בְּסוֹד־קְדֹשִׁים רַבָּה וְנוֹרָא עַל־כׇּל־סְבִיבָיו׃
a God greatly dreaded in the council of holy beings, held in awe by all around Him?
(Ps. 89:7-8)
מִזְמוֹר לְדָוִד הָבוּ לַיהֹוָה בְּנֵי אֵלִים הָבוּ לַיהֹוָה כָּבוֹד וָעֹז׃
A psalm of David. Ascribe to YHWH, O divine beings, ascribe to YHWH glory and strength.
(Ps. 29:1)
בְּרׇן־יַחַד כּוֹכְבֵי בֹקֶר וַיָּרִיעוּ כׇּל־בְּנֵי אֱלֹהִים׃
When the morning stars sang together and all the divine beings shouted for joy.
(Job 38:7)
מִי־כָמֹכָה בָּאֵלִם יְהֹוָה מִי כָּמֹכָה נֶאְדָּר בַּקֹּדֶשׁ נוֹרָא תְהִלֹּת עֹשֵׂה פֶלֶא׃
Who is like You, YHWH, among the celestials; who is like You, majestic in holiness, awesome in splendor, working wonders!
(Ex. 15:11)
כִּי אֵל גָּדוֹל יְהֹוָה וּמֶלֶךְ גָּדוֹל עַל־כׇּל־אֱלֹהִים׃
For YHWH is a great God, the great king of all divine beings.
(Ps. 95:3)
כִּי גָדוֹל יְהֹוָה וּמְהֻלָּל מְאֹד נוֹרָא הוּא עַל־כׇּל־אֱלֹהִים׃
For YHWH is great and much acclaimed, He is held in awe by all divine beings.
(Ps. 96:4)
וְעָשָׂ֨ה כִרְצֹנ֜וֹ הַמֶּ֗לֶךְ וְיִתְרוֹמֵ֤ם וְיִתְגַּדֵּל֙ עַל־כׇּל־אֵ֔ל וְעַל֙ אֵ֣ל אֵלִ֔ים יְדַבֵּ֖ר נִפְלָא֑וֹת וְהִצְלִ֙יחַ֙ עַד־כָּ֣לָה זַ֔עַם כִּ֥י נֶחֱרָצָ֖ה נֶעֱשָֽׂתָה׃
“The king will do as he pleases; he will exalt and magnify himself above every god, and he will speak awful things against the God of gods. He will prosper until wrath is spent, and what has been decreed is accomplished.
(Dan. 11:36)
כִּ֚י יְהֹוָ֣ה אֱלֹֽהֵיכֶ֔ם ה֚וּא אֱלֹהֵ֣י הָֽאֱלֹהִ֔ים וַאֲדֹנֵ֖י הָאֲדֹנִ֑ים הָאֵ֨ל הַגָּדֹ֤ל הַגִּבֹּר֙ וְהַנּוֹרָ֔א אֲשֶׁר֙ לֹא־יִשָּׂ֣א פָנִ֔ים וְלֹ֥א יִקַּ֖ח שֹֽׁחַד׃
For YHWH your God is “the God of gods and the Lord of lords.” God supreme and Lord supreme, the great, the mighty, and the awesome God, who shows no favor and takes no bribe.
(Deut. 10:17)
אֲדֹנָ֣י יֱהֹוִ֗ה אַתָּ֤ה הַֽחִלּ֙וֹתָ֙ לְהַרְא֣וֹת אֶֽת־עַבְדְּךָ֔ אֶ֨ת־גׇּדְלְךָ֔ וְאֶת־יָדְךָ֖ הַחֲזָקָ֑ה אֲשֶׁ֤ר מִי־אֵל֙ בַּשָּׁמַ֣יִם וּבָאָ֔רֶץ אֲשֶׁר־יַעֲשֶׂ֥ה כְמַעֲשֶׂ֖יךָ וְכִגְבוּרֹתֶֽךָ׃
“O Lord YHWH, You who let Your servant see the first works of Your greatness and Your mighty hand, You whose powerful deeds no god in heaven or on earth can equal!
(Deut. 3:24)
אֱ֭לֹהִים בַּקֹּ֣דֶשׁ דַּרְכֶּ֑ךָ מִי־אֵ֥ל גָּ֝ד֗וֹל כֵּאלֹהִֽים׃
O God, Your ways are holiness: what god is as great as God?
(Ps. 77:14)
ה֭וֹדוּ לֵאלֹהֵ֣י הָאֱלֹהִ֑ים כִּ֖י לְעוֹלָ֣ם חַסְדּֽוֹ׃
Praise the God of gods, His steadfast love is eternal.
(Ps. 136:2)
Council of Gods:[3]
מִזְמוֹר לְאָסָף אֱלֹהִים נִצָּב בַּעֲדַת־אֵל בְּקֶרֶב אֱלֹהִים יִשְׁפֹּט׃
A psalm of Asaph. God stands in the divine assembly; among the divine beings He pronounces judgment.
(Ps. 82:1)
אֲנִי־אָמַרְתִּי אֱלֹהִים אַתֶּם וּבְנֵי עֶלְיוֹן כֻּלְּכֶם׃
I [God] had taken you for divine beings, sons of the Most High, all of you.
(Ps. 82:7)
National gods:[5]
וּפֶן־תִּשָּׂא עֵינֶיךָ הַשָּׁמַיְמָה וְרָאִיתָ אֶת־הַשֶּׁמֶשׁ וְאֶת־הַיָּרֵחַ וְאֶת־הַכּוֹכָבִים כֹּל צְבָא הַשָּׁמַיִם וְנִדַּחְתָּ וְהִשְׁתַּחֲוִיתָ לָהֶם וַעֲבַדְתָּם אֲשֶׁר חָלַק יְהֹוָה אֱלֹהֶיךָ אֹתָם לְכֹל הָעַמִּים תַּחַת כׇּל־הַשָּׁמָיִם׃
And when you look up to the sky and behold the sun and the moon and the stars, the whole heavenly host, you must not be lured into bowing down to them or serving them. These, YHWH your God allotted to other peoples everywhere under heaven.
וְאֶתְכֶם לָקַח יְהֹוָה וַיּוֹצִא אֶתְכֶם מִכּוּר הַבַּרְזֶל מִמִּצְרָיִם לִהְיוֹת לוֹ לְעַם נַחֲלָה כַּיּוֹם הַזֶּה׃
but you YHWH took and brought out of Egypt, that iron blast furnace, to be His very own people, as is now the case.
(Deut. 4:20)
וְאָ֣מְר֔וּ עַ֚ל אֲשֶׁ֣ר עָזְב֔וּ אֶת־בְּרִ֥ית יְהֹוָ֖ה אֱלֹהֵ֣י אֲבֹתָ֑ם אֲשֶׁר֙ כָּרַ֣ת עִמָּ֔ם בְּהוֹצִיא֥וֹ אֹתָ֖ם מֵאֶ֥רֶץ מִצְרָֽיִם׃
They will be told, “Because they forsook the covenant that YHWH God of their fathers, made with them when He freed them from the land of Egypt;
וַיֵּלְכ֗וּ וַיַּֽעַבְדוּ֙ אֱלֹהִ֣ים אֲחֵרִ֔ים וַיִּֽשְׁתַּחֲו֖וּ לָהֶ֑ם אֱלֹהִים֙ אֲשֶׁ֣ר לֹֽא־יְדָע֔וּם וְלֹ֥א חָלַ֖ק לָהֶֽם׃
they turned to the service of other gods and worshiped them, gods whom they had not experienced and whom He had not allotted to them.
(Deut. 29:24:25)
כִּ֚י כׇּל־הָ֣עַמִּ֔ים יֵלְכ֕וּ אִ֖ישׁ בְּשֵׁ֣ם אֱלֹהָ֑יו וַאֲנַ֗חְנוּ נֵלֵ֛ךְ בְּשֵׁם־יְהֹוָ֥ה אֱלֹהֵ֖ינוּ לְעוֹלָ֥ם וָעֶֽד׃
Though all the peoples walk each in the names of its gods, we will walk in the name of YHWH our God forever and ever.
(Micah 4:5)
וְעָבַרְתִּ֣י בְאֶֽרֶץ־מִצְרַ֘יִם֮ בַּלַּ֣יְלָה הַזֶּה֒ וְהִכֵּיתִ֤י כׇל־בְּכוֹר֙ בְּאֶ֣רֶץ מִצְרַ֔יִם מֵאָדָ֖ם וְעַד־בְּהֵמָ֑ה וּבְכׇל־אֱלֹהֵ֥י מִצְרַ֛יִם אֶֽעֱשֶׂ֥ה שְׁפָטִ֖ים אֲנִ֥י יְהֹוָֽה׃
For that night I will go through the land of Egypt and strike down every first-born in the land of Egypt, both man and beast; and I will mete out punishments to all the gods of Egypt, I YHWH.
(Ex. 12:12)
Yet despite this, many biblical passages speak about the ultimate being when all the nations serve the international God YHWH, Creator of Heaven and Earth, and personal-national God of the Israelites. Here is just one of many examples throughout different books of Tanakh:
כִּי־אָז אֶהְפֹּךְ אֶל־עַמִּים שָׂפָה בְרוּרָה לִקְרֹא כֻלָּם בְּשֵׁם יְהֹוָה לְעׇבְדוֹ שְׁכֶם אֶחָד׃
For then I will make the peoples pure of speech, so that they all invoke YHWH by name and serve Him with one accord.
(Zep. 3:9)
Perhaps we have seen something to this extent with the overall transition from a pagan world to the current monotheistic world that serves YHWH, the God of the Israelites, and Supreme God of Heaven and Earth.
Another interesting point is that in Canaanite mythology, EL is said to have had 70 god-sons together with Asherah, His goddess.[6] Although the Torah clearly rejects Asherah (or at least worship of it), perhaps it understood these 70 inferior gods as being the personal gods of the 70 nations recorded in Genesis Ch. 10. Whereas the Israelites, who are notably absent from the Table of Nations in Gen. 10, are above the 70 nations and have YHWH, or EL, as their personal God.[7]
What makes Torah monotheist
The service of one God, namely the Supreme God EL, was sanctioned – and commanded – by the Torah. Other religions/nations served the inferior gods in the Canaanite pantheon, such as Baal or Asherah, but generally refrained from serving EL, deeming him to be too lofty (see an exception with Melchizedek in Gen. 14). But Torah exclaimed that EL, otherwise known as YHWH, was the personal God of the Israelites, and therefore we couldn’t serve the other gods or bow to idols that represented these other idols.
אָֽנֹכִ֖י֙ יְהֹוָ֣ה אֱלֹהֶ֑֔יךָ אֲשֶׁ֧ר הוֹצֵאתִ֛יךָ מֵאֶ֥רֶץ מִצְרַ֖יִם מִבֵּ֣֥ית עֲבָדִ֑͏ֽים׃
I YHWH am your God who brought you out of the land of Egypt, the house of bondage:
לֹֽ֣א־יִהְיֶ֥͏ֽה־לְךָ֛֩ אֱלֹהִ֥֨ים אֲחֵרִ֖֜ים עַל־פָּנָֽ֗͏ַי׃
You shall have no other gods besides Me.
לֹֽ֣א־תַֽעֲשֶׂ֨ה־לְךָ֥֣ פֶ֣֙סֶל֙ ׀ וְכׇל־תְּמוּנָ֔֡ה אֲשֶׁ֤֣ר בַּשָּׁמַ֣֙יִם֙ ׀ מִמַּ֔֡עַל וַֽאֲשֶׁ֥ר֩ בָּאָ֖֨רֶץ מִתָּ֑֜͏ַחַת וַאֲשֶׁ֥ר בַּמַּ֖֣יִם ׀ מִתַּ֥֣חַת לָאָֽ֗רֶץ׃
You shall not make for yourself a sculptured image, or any likeness of what is in the heavens
לֹֽא־תִשְׁתַּחֲוֶ֥֣ה לָהֶ֖ם֮ וְלֹ֣א תׇעׇבְדֵ֑ם֒
You shall not bow down to them or serve them.
(Ex. 20:2-5)
So while the Torah clearly believes in other inferior gods, as demonstrated earlier, in practice it only allows for the service of YHWH, or EL, the Supreme God in the Canaanite pantheon. So Torah can be regarded as monotheistic in practice but not necessarily so in ideology. Unless we define monotheism to mean the belief in one supreme and unparalleled God, in which case the biblical God is truly monotheistic.
In order to better fight the Jewish war against serving foreign gods, it has become, over time, increasingly taboo to refer to other gods – even the angels and the divine powers referred to as gods in Tanakh – as gods. This change in terminology has caused much academic confusion concerning the original understanding of God by the ancient Israelites and today’s understanding of God in Judaism. But I think it is mostly just a terminology difference that has changed from the early Israelites’ description of the angels as gods and today’s lack thereof.
In contrast to the other gods of the nations, nowhere in Tanakh do we see any rival to YHWH, Creator of Heaven and Earth. These gods project their power on Earth, each fulfilling the duties they were assigned to. Several biblical texts portray YHWH as surrounded by heavenly beings who attend Him or await His orders (e.g., 1 Kings 22.19–22, Isaiah 6, Ezekiel 1, Zechariah 3, Job 1.6; a similar picture is assumed in Psalm 29 and Isaiah 40.1–2). However, despite their supernatural divine-like characters, it is forbidden in Torah to serve these celestial divine beings. This is what makes Torah monotheistic: it is the permissibility to serve only the God of gods; not that other gods don’t exist – they do, but they were created by and are subject to the God of gods.[8]
The verses that speak of no gods beside God can be explained, based on the above evidence, to mean that none of the other gods stand at His level. It does not, however, mean that no other gods exist whatsoever. They do, as demonstrated, but they are incomparable to Him as the verses quoted above indicate. The revolution of Judaism was the permissibility to only serve the Supreme God and none others. Many nations have served only one god of their choosing.[9] Similarly, some people served EL, the Supreme God (e.g. Melchizedek in Gen. 14). The uniqueness of Judaism is in the combination of (1) serving only one of the gods and (2) that God being the Supreme God, EL or YHWH, and (3) serving YHWH with no Image associated with Him.
It should be noted that Torah was not the first to introduce monotheism. Pharaoh Akhenaten (ca. 1500 BCE) worshipped only one God who he deemed to be the Creator of Heaven and Earth; its name was Aten and was associated with sun-worshipping.
Bible Critic’s model of divine evolution
Many biblical scholars, perhaps even mainstream thought in the field, believe that the Israelites’ conception of God evolved over time as history progressed. They argue that various verses in the different books of Tanakh represent different views of different authors from different eras in Jewish history.
We cited these verses earlier and explained how they are not in conflict and not necessarily were they written with different theologies in mind as Bible Critics assert.
But the Bible Critic comes with the axiom that the Israelites evolved from the Canaanites and Canaanite culture. Thus, they must have evolved from the Canaanite conception of the gods to their current monotheistic beliefs. There may be merit to their claim, and the Israelites were heavily influenced by their Canaanite surroundings, but not necessarily did the biblical view of God go through an evolution.
As evidence for their belief in an Israelite evolution of worshipping God, Bible Critics will point to the overwhelming evidence of idol-worship throughout ancient Israel. But this may just be what the Prophets repeatedly call ” national sinning.” The Torah prohibited idol-worshipping, yet the Israelites were heavily influenced by their surrounding cultures and were continuously rebuked by the Prophets for this. What the archeology does confirm is that there was an evolution in the Israelites’ conception of God – not the Torah’s conception of God. It should also be noted that even the Israelites were serving YHWH, yet in addition they were serving other gods as well. This is what Elijah the Prophet rebukes them about serving both YHWH and Baal (I Kings 18:21). This is perhaps analogous to the many American Jews who now have Christmas tress at their home or celebrate Halloween, despite attending Yom Kippur services and Passover Seders.
Furthermore, the Israelites seemed to have served YHWH much more than the other gods, as reflected by their theophoric names. 96% of names in ancient Israel, both from the biblical accounts as well as archeological finds, have theophoric names containing the name YHWH. This is compared to a mere 6% of other deities represented in their names. The Moabite Stone inscription of the 8th-century talks of the Israelites and their God YHWH, making mention of no other Israelite God. Papyrus Amherst 63, reflecting the beliefs of Northern Israel in the Monarchal era, suggest YHWH was the primary God of the Israelites, despite their grave images of Him prohibited in the Torah. This would suggest, again, that the Israelites “Canaanized” their biblical belief in the God YHWH.
A large segment of Israelites were originally polytheistic and later in history became more and more accepting of Torah’s semi-monotheistic views, eventually becoming perhaps even more monotheistic than Torah itself as explained earlier.
Another piece of evidence often quoted by Bible Critics is this intriguing and ambiguous statement that God tells Moses:
“I appeared to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob with [the name] Almighty God [Shad-dai], but [with] My name YHWH, I did not become known to them.” (Exodus 6:3)
This is used as the basis for the assumption that originally the Israelites only served EL, and only later did they incorporate YHWH into their religion. But this theory is merely conjecture with alternative explanations of the verse explained here.
[1] Considered an old text even according to Bible Critics.
[2] Often expressed by the single word Ilkunirsas.
[3] For another reference about the Council of Gods, see I Kings 22:19:
19 But [Micaiah] said, “I call upon you to hear the word of the LORD! I saw the LORD seated upon His throne, with all the host of heaven standing in attendance to the right and to the left of Him.
20 The LORD asked, ‘Who will entice Ahab so that he will march and fall at Ramoth-Gilead?’ Then one said thus and another said thus,
21 until a certain spirit came forward and stood before the LORD and said, ‘I will entice him.’ ‘How?’ the LORD asked him.
22 And he replied, ‘I will go out and be a lying spirit in the mouth of all his prophets.’ Then He said, ‘You will entice and you will prevail. Go out and do it.’
[4] A keen eye will notice in this narrative that of the three men, one is YHWH and the two others are messengers of His. It’s clear that YHWH is one of these men from the following:
- 18:1 speaks of God meeting Abraham and the natural reading of verse 2 is that this is the form of God talking to Abraham. Otherwise, verse 2 is a sudden abruption from verse 1 and the expected conversation between God and Abraham. It would seem that Abraham ditches the Lord in order to invite these guest into his tent!
- The men eating at Abraham express supernatural powers, including granting Sarah a son that year and later shooting beams of light at the intruders at Lot (19:11).
- Abraham calls these guests Adonai, a term that means my master, but is usually referring to God. In this case it seems obvious to be referring to God which was just mentioned in the previous verse rather than three random passers. Similarly, he calls himself a servant of his/theirs. The term Adonai as well as Avdecha (your servant) are terms almost exclusively used for God. Additionally, the singular use of the word Adonai suggests that he was speaking primarily to one of them, apparently the obvious leader of them, in this case YHWH.
- The narrative speaks of the men about to leave when suddenly YHWH decides to inform Abraham about what He plans to do to Sodom. The people only leave after YHWH is done telling Abraham His plans. Seemingly, one of them is YHWH who was verbalizing with Abraham His plans.
- Once YHWH departs (verse 33), magically there are only two of the men left (the very next verse, 19:1). They are suddenly called messengers, or angels, (malachim in Heb.). Similarly, 18:22 speaks of the men leaving towards Sodom while Abraham remains with YHWH. As is evident from later (19:1) only two men went to Sodom, so the third seems to be YHWH who remained with Abraham.
- Rashi on 18:22, quoting from an earlier Midrash, says that the sages changed the text of the verse. Originally, it said “The (two) men went on from there to Sodom, while the LORD remained standing before Abraham.” The sages switched the text to “and Abraham remained standing before the LORD.” Perhaps they switched it for theological reasons or perhaps for other reasons; either way, they switched the original text that spoke of the two men leaving and YHWH still staying standing in front of Abraham. This suggests that He was the third man standing in front of Abraham, who remained standing while the other two went out to Sodom.
- Verse 10 describes one of the men telling Abraham that he (He) will return to him next year after Sarah gives birth. This person is later described as God Himself – verses 13 and 14. Indeed, it is God who appears to Abraham after the birth of Isaac (Gen. 21:12). As for why God is sometimes called a person and at other times YHWH, this may be the simple literary device of alternating between name and pronoun.
On a similar note, this episode also describes YHWH as being unaware of the events at Sodom and is merely informed of their evildoings by (apparently) rumors from other gods/angels. God tells Abraham that he heard rumors of evildoing in Sodom and will go there to check it out (18:21). Apparently, he sends his angels to do the spying for him (19:1). In any event, we see an interesting perspective of God that said by any other person today would be regarded as heresy.
This is not necessarily a problem for Judaism, since it can be explained that this is mere anthropomorphism and a way for God to speak with Abraham. Other anthropomorphic verses include Gen. 8:21, Gen. 11:5, Ex. 24:9-11, and Deut. 31:15. However, this is the most extreme example of theophany since God appears as a physical human. Rashbam, a prominent rabbinic commentator and grandson of Rashi, explains (in his commentary to 18:1) that God did indeed appear to Abraham as an angel embodied in a human body. He brings proof from Ex. 3:2 where a messenger of God appears through the medium of a burning bush to Moses, yet later this messenger (or embodiment) of God is referred to as YHWH Himself (verse 4). To say that God is a human is heresy; but to say that He can embody Himself in a human form is believing in God and His capabilities. God is not limited by that human feature, it is merely a temporary manifestation of His in physical form.
Interestingly, the Tale of Aqhat speaks of a man feeding the deities, just as in the narrative here with Abraham.
[5] See Ramban on Lev. 18:25 where he is also of the opinion that the nations were allotted personal gods.
[6] He (Ba’al) invited his brothers into his house, His ki[nf]olk inside his palace; He invited the seventy, the children of Athirat (šbʿm bn aṯrt). (KTU 1.4:VI.46 – The Ugaritic Baal Cycle, Vol. II – VT 114, Smith). Baal is the son of EL in Ugaritic mythology and Athirat is another name for Asherah, consort of EL.
[7] Adding to this theme is Deut. 32:8-9 in the LXX and two Dead Sea Scroll versions.
Here is the Masoretic version of the text used in traditional Jewish circles today.
בְּהַנְחֵ֤ל עֶלְיוֹן֙ גּוֹיִ֔ם בְּהַפְרִיד֖וֹ בְּנֵ֣י אָדָ֑ם יַצֵּב֙ גְּבֻלֹ֣ת עַמִּ֔ים לְמִסְפַּ֖ר בְּנֵ֥י יִשְׂרָאֵֽל׃
When the Most High gave nations their homes and set the divisions of man, He fixed the boundaries of peoples in relation to Israel’s numbers.
כִּ֛י חֵ֥לֶק יְהֹוָ֖ה עַמּ֑וֹ יַעֲקֹ֖ב חֶ֥בֶל נַחֲלָתֽוֹ׃
For YHWH’s portion is His people, Jacob His own allotment.
Most LXX (Septuagint) copies as well as two Dead Sea Scroll versions of the text replace “Sons of Israel’s numbers” (mispar b’nei yisroel in Heb.) to “Sons of gods’ numbers” (mispar b’nei el in Heb.). Most scholars, for reasons beyond this discussion, accept the LXX/Qumran version of the text over the Masoretic. Although the Masoretic text is usually more respected for its general conservativeness in preserving the original text, in this case scholars have good reason to assume that the Masorites may have switched this verse for theological reasons.
If the LXX version is correct, then the verse is basically saying that EL Elyon, the Most High Father of all the inferior gods, divided the land into geographical borders, granting each nation a specific lot of land based on their national/personal god. It then proceeds to say how YHWH is the Israelites’ national God and how he found them homeless in a desert and brought them to the land of Canaan.
This would be in harmony with the 70 sons of god spoken about in Ugaritic texts and the 70 nations and their borders described in Genesis 10.
[8] For more on this, see The Bodies of God and the World of Ancient Israel by Benjamin Sommer, appendix Monotheism and Polytheism in Ancient Israel. Can be found here. We will now bring one relevant idea he brings in the book that pertains to our discussion here.
[O lord, ra]diance of the great gods, light of earth, illuminator of the world regions, [O Shamash], lofty judge, creator of the above and below, … You alone are [mani]fest, no one among the gods can rival you.
(An Assyrian hymn to Shamash)
I implore you, lady of ladies, goddess of goddesses, Ishtar, queen of all the inhabited world. . . Irnini [=Inanna], you are noble, the greatest of the Igigi-gods,. . . OMistress, splendid is your greatness, exalted over all the gods.
(A neo-Babylonian prayer to Ishtar)
Warrior among his brothers, princely god, Lord surpassing all the Igigi-gods, Nergal, princely god, Lord surpassing all the Igigi-gods!
(An Akkadian prayer to Nergal)
My lady, your divine powers are great divine powers, surpassing [(other) divine powers], Nanshe, your divine powers are not matched by any other divine powers. King An looks on with joy. Hewhosits with Enlil on the dais of destiny determination, Father Enlil, has determined your destiny.
(An early second-millennium Sumerian hymn)
A god might have been called the greatest or the only god because at a particular moment that god was of Paramount importance to the worshipper. Alternatively, prayers might indulge in exaggeration and flattery. The Mesopotamian scribes who composed these verses and the worshippers who recited them were perfectly ready to say the same thing about another god the next day. Indeed, the hymn to Shamash was composed for the eighth-century king of Assyria, Assurbanipal, but that king did not hesitate also to call Nabu unparalleled among the gods: [I sin]g your praise, O Nabu, among the great gods .. . . I keep turning to you, O most valorous of the gods his brethren. It goes without saying, of course, that Assurbanipal’s primary loyalty was directed to neither of these two gods but to Assyria’s own deity, Ashur.
In Enuma Elish 4:3–15 the gods themselves sang to Marduk: You are the most important among the great gods, Your destiny is unrivaled, your command is supreme. OMarduk, you are the most important among the great gods, Your destiny is unrivaled, your command is supreme. Henceforth your command cannot be changed, To rise up, to bring low, this shall be your power. … O Marduk, you are our champion, We bestow upon you kingship of all and everything. Take your place in the assembly, your word shall be supreme.
One might want to take these lines literally and suggest that Marduk is being raised here to the sort of power we associate with a monotheistic God. However, earlier in Enuma Elish Tiamat had made the same promise to Qingu when she acclaimed him king of the gods in 1:153–58: I make you the greatest in the assembly of the gods. Kingship of all the gods I put in your power. You are the greatest, my husband, you are illustrious, Your command shall always be greatest, over all the Anunna-gods. … As for you, your command will not be changed, your utterance will endure.
Thus, only the Israelite (or Canaanite) God of EL has actual superiority and utter dominance over all the other gods, with no rival ever standing up to him.
[9] A god they deemed to protect their nation.
