Overview: A discussion about the constant and obvious repetition and contradictions within the Flood narrative. The two sources theory, the counter arguments from the Epic of Gilgamesh and chiasm, and the responses to those, and the consequences for Judaism.
Source theory is the art of distinguishing what critical Bible Scholars believe to be different strands within the Torah each written by different authors. There are several schools of thought on this, including the famous “Documentary Hypothesis” that divides the Torah into four strands of JEDP with the final editing by a Redactor. We will avoid the general discussion of the Documentary Hypothesis here, instead focusing on what may be the prime example of source theory: the flood narrative in Genesis. This universal flood is described in Gen. 6:5 to 9:17.
A few introductory remarks are necessary to best understand the context of the Flood narrative. First is the scientific data about a universal flood. Archaeology overwhelmingly affirms that no universal flood has happened some four thousand years ago, or any time in history for that matter. Early Genesis as a whole, including the Flood narrative, has long been determined to be unhistorical. For a discussion about this, see here.
Secondly, there are many ancient myths about a great flood found all throughout the historical cultures. While some might argue that this affirms the historicity of the flood, in fact it only affirms the mythology borrowing that happened in ancient times. These universal flood myths differ in detail, with the Mesopotamian versions most closely aligning with the Israelite version of the Flood recorded in Genesis. Most famous of these are the Epic of Gilgamesh, the myth of Atrahasis, and Ziusudra that all bear striking parallels with the Genesis account of the universal flood, though a full discussion of this goes beyond the purpose of this article.[1] The point of the biblical Flood narrative seems to be a monotheistic bend to the famous myth of the time, in order to inspire the Israelites.
Two sources in the flood narrative
When closely reading the Flood narrative, one will notice several contradictions and many repetitions. The story has no flow, like all other narratives read. Instead, it repeats the same details, literally one verse after the next, usually using different words. It becomes obvious to the objective reader that at least two versions of the Flood story were interwoven by an editor and placed into Genesis. Perhaps the original intention was that the readers know of the two versions as they read them one after the other. Yet over time, the misconception began that this is one story written by one author.
One obvious contradiction is the amount of animals Noah is to bring into the ark. Several passages specify – and emphasize – two of each – both pure and impure animals (see e.g. Gen. 7:8) – while others say seven pairs of the pure animals and one pair of the impure. There are also seeming discrepancies about what caused Noah to leave the ark – either him opening the ark and seeing the dry land or a divine command. Similarly, some verses speak of a 40-day flood while others of a 150-day one. It also mentions twice how the people are evil, how God decides to destroy the Earth, how He instructs Noah to build an ark and bring the animals in, how Noah listens and enters the ark, and how the flood destroys all life on earth. Also, if read as a single narrative, Noah apparently enters the ark only after the 40 day flood (see 7:12-13). When split however, the verses make sense since Noah enters the same day that water begins to fall, according to the P account, and enters before the 40 day rain (see verse 7) according to the non-P account. Another inconsistency is that Noah sends out the birds to see if the earth has dried when we already said earlier that the mountaintops already became visible.
Once we split the verses into two narratives – as we will do in a chart below – several patterns become noticeable and it becomes increasingly clear that there were originally two narratives that were later combined. One obvious pattern is the usage of different names for God, with each source opting for a specific name for God. One narrative (referred to as the Priestly Code, or P Code, in scholarly circles) continuously uses Elohim translated in the English as God) to refer to God, while the other (referred to as the non-Priestly Code, or non-P Code) uses YHWH.
Another pattern is that in the non-P narrative, the term shachas (destroyed) is used repeatedly while in the P narrative the term is not used (substituted usually by macha). There are other less convincing linguistic distinctions but they may build up, unitedly, to make a compelling case. But we will avoid that discussion so as not to bore us out.
Another pattern is the absolute chronology used in the P account (e.g. 1st month and the 17th day) while a relative chronology is used in the non-P (e.g. 7 days, 40 days).
Another interesting pattern, seen here and in other places throughout Genesis, is the non-P Code speaking of God in very human terms. It speaks of God fearing his spirit will reign forever in the humans, he feels regret for creating mankind, he feels sad, he then causes the Flood and eventually smells and gets appeased by the sacrifice of Noah and decides not to destroy mankind again. These points are taken directly out of the verses in the non-P section. The P section has none of this. This pattern can be seen as well in Gen. 1, ascribed to the P Code, which lacks any major human descriptions for God and uses the name Elohim; whereas Gen. Ch. 2,3 and 4 all talk of God in very human terms and use the name YHWH.
It should be noted that repetition can occur, especially in ancient literature, even by the same author. But the problem here is that the repetition is abrupt, cutting into one another without a seamless flow as one would expect from a single author.
We will now bring a chart to visually demonstrate that two stories read perfectly into the continuous version we now have in Genesis. Note that some of these arrangements are disputed and the exact separation of the two original accounts is impossible to decide with certainty although the general pattern is clear with a few verses in dispute among scholars.
| Priestly Code | Non-Priestly Code |
| וַיְהִי כִּי־הֵחֵל הָאָדָם לָרֹב עַל־פְּנֵי הָאֲדָמָה וּבָנוֹת יֻלְּדו לָהֶם׃
1. When men began to increase on earth and daughters were born to them,
וַיִּרְאוּ בְנֵי־הָאֱלֹהִים אֶת־בְּנוֹת הָאָדָם כִּי טֹבֹת הֵנָּה וַיִּקְחוּ לָהֶם נָשִׁים מִכֹּל אֲשֶׁר בָּחָרוּ׃ 2. the divine beings saw how beautiful the daughters of men were and took wives from among those that pleased them.—
וַיֹּאמֶר יְהֹוָה לֹא־יָדוֹן רוּחִי בָאָדָם לְעֹלָם בְּשַׁגַּם הוּא בָשָׂר וְהָיוּ יָמָיו מֵאָה וְעֶשְׂרִים שָׁנָה׃ 3. And YHWH said, “My breath shall not abide in man forever, since he too is flesh; let the days allowed him be one hundred and twenty years.”—
הַנְּפִלִים הָיוּ בָאָרֶץ בַּיָּמִים הָהֵם וְגַם אַחֲרֵי־כֵן אֲשֶׁר יָבֹאוּ בְּנֵי הָאֱלֹהִים אֶל־בְּנוֹת הָאָדָם וְיָלְדוּ לָהֶם הֵמָּה הַגִּבֹּרִים אֲשֶׁר מֵעוֹלָם אַנְשֵׁי הַשֵּׁם׃ 4. It was then, and later too, that the Nephilim appeared on earth—when the divine beings cohabited with the daughters of men, who bore them offspring. They were the heroes of old, the men of renown.
וַיַּרְא יְהֹוָה כִּי רַבָּה רָעַת הָאָדָם בָּאָרֶץ וְכׇל־יֵצֶר מַחְשְׁבֹת לִבּוֹ רַק רַע כׇּל־הַיּוֹם׃ 5. A YHWH saw how great was man’s wickedness on earth, and how every plan devised by his mind was nothing but evil all the time.
וַיִּנָּחֶם יְהֹוָה כִּי־עָשָׂה אֶת־הָאָדָם בָּאָרֶץ וַיִּתְעַצֵּב אֶל־לִבּוֹ׃ 6. And YHWH regretted that He had made man on earth, and His heart was saddened.
וַיֹּאמֶר יְהֹוָה אֶמְחֶה אֶת־הָאָדָם אֲשֶׁר־בָּרָאתִי מֵעַל פְּנֵי הָאֲדָמָה מֵאָדָם עַד־בְּהֵמָה עַד־רֶמֶשׂ וְעַד־עוֹף הַשָּׁמָיִם כִּי נִחַמְתִּי כִּי עֲשִׂיתִם׃ 7. And YHWH said, “I will blot out from the earth the men whom I created—men together with beasts, creeping things, and birds of the sky; for I regret that I made them.”
וְנֹחַ מָצָא חֵן בְּעֵינֵי יְהֹוָה׃ 8. But Noah found favor with YHWH. |
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| אֵלֶּה תּוֹלְדֹת נֹחַ נֹחַ אִישׁ צַדִּיק תָּמִים הָיָה בְּדֹרֹתָיו אֶת־הָאֱלֹהִים הִתְהַלֶּךְ־נֹחַ׃
9. This is the line of Noah.—Noah was a righteous man; he was blameless in his age; Noah walked with God.—
וַיּוֹלֶד נֹחַ שְׁלֹשָׁה בָנִים אֶת־שֵׁם אֶת־חָם וְאֶת־יָפֶת׃ 10. Noah begot three sons: Shem, Ham, and Japheth.
וַתִּשָּׁחֵת הָאָרֶץ לִפְנֵי הָאֱלֹהִים וַתִּמָּלֵא הָאָרֶץ חָמָס׃ 11. The earth became corrupt before God; the earth was filled with lawlessness.
וַיַּרְא אֱלֹהִים אֶת־הָאָרֶץ וְהִנֵּה נִשְׁחָתָה כִּי־הִשְׁחִית כׇּל־בָּשָׂר אֶת־דַּרְכּוֹ עַל־הָאָרֶץ׃ 12. When God saw how corrupt the earth was, for all flesh had corrupted its ways on earth,
וַיֹּאמֶר אֱלֹהִים לְנֹחַ קֵץ כׇּל־בָּשָׂר בָּא לְפָנַי כִּי־מָלְאָה הָאָרֶץ חָמָס מִפְּנֵיהֶם וְהִנְנִי מַשְׁחִיתָם אֶת־הָאָרֶץ׃ 13. God said to Noah, “I have decided to put an end to all flesh, for the earth is filled with lawlessness because of them: I am about to destroy them with the earth.
עֲשֵׂה לְךָ תֵּבַת עֲצֵי־גֹפֶר קִנִּים תַּעֲשֶׂה אֶת־הַתֵּבָה וְכָפַרְתָּ אֹתָהּ מִבַּיִת וּמִחוּץ בַּכֹּפֶר׃ 14. Make yourself an ark of gopher wood; make it an ark with compartments, and cover it inside and out with pitch.
וְזֶה אֲשֶׁר תַּעֲשֶׂה אֹתָהּ שְׁלֹשׁ מֵאוֹת אַמָּה אֹרֶךְ הַתֵּבָה חֲמִשִּׁים אַמָּה רׇחְבָּהּ וּשְׁלֹשִׁים אַמָּה קוֹמָתָהּ׃ 15. This is how you shall make it: the length of the ark shall be three hundred cubits, its width fifty cubits, and its height thirty cubits.
צֹהַר תַּעֲשֶׂה לַתֵּבָה וְאֶל־אַמָּה תְּכַלֶּנָּה מִלְמַעְלָה וּפֶתַח הַתֵּבָה בְּצִדָּהּ תָּשִׂים תַּחְתִּיִּם שְׁנִיִּם וּשְׁלִשִׁים תַּעֲשֶׂהָ׃ 16. Make an opening for daylight in the ark, and terminate it within a cubit of the top. Put the entrance to the ark in its side; make it with bottom, second, and third decks.
וַאֲנִי הִנְנִי מֵבִיא אֶת־הַמַּבּוּל מַיִם עַל־הָאָרֶץ לְשַׁחֵת כׇּל־בָּשָׂר אֲשֶׁר־בּוֹ רוּחַ חַיִּים מִתַּחַת הַשָּׁמָיִם כֹּל אֲשֶׁר־בָּאָרֶץ יִגְוָע׃ 17. “For My part, I am about to bring the Flood—waters upon the earth—to destroy all flesh under the sky in which there is breath of life; everything on earth shall perish.
וַהֲקִמֹתִי אֶת־בְּרִיתִי אִתָּךְ וּבָאתָ אֶל־הַתֵּבָה אַתָּה וּבָנֶיךָ וְאִשְׁתְּךָ וּנְשֵׁי־בָנֶיךָ אִתָּךְ׃ 18. But I will establish My covenant with you, and you shall enter the ark, with your sons, your wife, and your sons’ wives.
וּמִכׇּל־הָחַי מִכׇּל־בָּשָׂר שְׁנַיִם מִכֹּל תָּבִיא אֶל־הַתֵּבָה לְהַחֲיֹת אִתָּךְ זָכָר וּנְקֵבָה יִהְיוּ׃ 19. And of all that lives, of all flesh, you shall take two of each into the ark to keep alive with you; they shall be male and female.
מֵהָעוֹף לְמִינֵהוּ וּמִן־הַבְּהֵמָה לְמִינָהּ מִכֹּל רֶמֶשׂ הָאֲדָמָה לְמִינֵהוּ שְׁנַיִם מִכֹּל יָבֹאוּ אֵלֶיךָ לְהַחֲיוֹת׃ 20. From birds of every kind, cattle of every kind, every kind of creeping thing on earth, two of each shall come to you to stay alive.
וְאַתָּה קַח־לְךָ מִכׇּל־מַאֲכָל אֲשֶׁר יֵאָכֵל וְאָסַפְתָּ אֵלֶיךָ וְהָיָה לְךָ וְלָהֶם לְאׇכְלָה׃ 21. For your part, take of everything that is eaten and store it away, to serve as food for you and for them.”
וַיַּעַשׂ נֹחַ כְּכֹל אֲשֶׁר צִוָּה אֹתוֹ אֱלֹהִים כֵּן עָשָׂה׃ 22. Noah did so; just as God commanded him, so he did. |
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| וַיֹּאמֶר יְהֹוָה לְנֹחַ בֹּא־אַתָּה וְכׇל־בֵּיתְךָ אֶל־הַתֵּבָה כִּי־אֹתְךָ רָאִיתִי צַדִּיק לְפָנַי בַּדּוֹר הַזֶּה׃
1. And YHWH said to Noah, “Go into the ark, with all your household, for you alone have I found righteous before Me in this generation.
מִכֹּל הַבְּהֵמָה הַטְּהוֹרָה תִּקַּח־לְךָ שִׁבְעָה שִׁבְעָה אִישׁ וְאִשְׁתּוֹ וּמִן־הַבְּהֵמָה אֲשֶׁר לֹא טְהֹרָה הִוא שְׁנַיִם אִישׁ וְאִשְׁתּוֹ׃ 2. Of every clean animal you shall take seven pairs, males and their mates, and of every animal that is not clean, two, a male and its mate;
גַּם מֵעוֹף הַשָּׁמַיִם שִׁבְעָה שִׁבְעָה זָכָר וּנְקֵבָה לְחַיּוֹת זֶרַע עַל־פְּנֵי כׇל־הָאָרֶץ׃ 3. of the birds of the sky also, seven pairs, male and female, to keep seed alive upon all the earth.
כִּי לְיָמִים עוֹד שִׁבְעָה אָנֹכִי מַמְטִיר עַל־הָאָרֶץ אַרְבָּעִים יוֹם וְאַרְבָּעִים לָיְלָה וּמָחִיתִי אֶת־כׇּל־הַיְקוּם אֲשֶׁר עָשִׂיתִי מֵעַל פְּנֵי הָאֲדָמָה׃ 4. For in seven days’ time I will make it rain upon the earth, forty days and forty nights, and I will blot out from the earth all existence that I created.”
וַיַּעַשׂ נֹחַ כְּכֹל אֲשֶׁר־צִוָּהוּ יְהֹוָה׃ 5. And Noah did just as YHWH commanded him. |
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| וְנֹחַ בֶּן־שֵׁשׁ מֵאוֹת שָׁנָה וְהַמַּבּוּל הָיָה מַיִם עַל־הָאָרֶץ׃
6. Noah was six hundred years old when the Flood came, waters upon the earth. |
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| וַיָּבֹא נֹחַ וּבָנָיו וְאִשְׁתּוֹ וּנְשֵׁי־בָנָיו אִתּוֹ אֶל־הַתֵּבָה מִפְּנֵי מֵי הַמַּבּוּל׃
7. Noah, with his sons, his wife, and his sons’ wives, went into the ark because of the waters of the Flood. |
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| Scholars dispute if this verse belongs to P, non-P, or perhaps an addition from the Redactor. But we will just leave it here for simplicity’s sake:
מִן־הַבְּהֵמָה הַטְּהוֹרָה וּמִן־הַבְּהֵמָה אֲשֶׁר אֵינֶנָּה טְהֹרָה וּמִן־הָעוֹף וְכֹל אֲשֶׁר־רֹמֵשׂ עַל־הָאֲדָמָה׃ 8. Of the clean animals, of the animals that are not clean, of the birds, and of everything that creeps on the ground,
שְׁנַיִם שְׁנַיִם בָּאוּ אֶל־נֹחַ אֶל־הַתֵּבָה זָכָר וּנְקֵבָה כַּאֲשֶׁר צִוָּה אֱלֹהִים אֶת־נֹחַ׃ 9. two of each, male and female, came to Noah into the ark, as God had commanded Noah. |
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| וַיְהִי לְשִׁבְעַת הַיָּמִים וּמֵי הַמַּבּוּל הָיוּ עַל־הָאָרֶץ׃
10. And on the seventh day the waters of the Flood came upon the earth. |
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| בִּשְׁנַת שֵׁשׁ־מֵאוֹת שָׁנָה לְחַיֵּי־נֹחַ בַּחֹדֶשׁ הַשֵּׁנִי בְּשִׁבְעָה־עָשָׂר יוֹם לַחֹדֶשׁ בַּיּוֹם הַזֶּה נִבְקְעוּ כׇּל־מַעְיְנֹת תְּהוֹם רַבָּה וַאֲרֻבֹּת הַשָּׁמַיִם נִפְתָּחוּ׃
11. In the six hundredth year of Noah’s life, in the second month, on the seventeenth day of the month, on that day All the fountains of the great deep burst apart, And the floodgates of the sky broke open. |
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| וַיְהִי הַגֶּשֶׁם עַל־הָאָרֶץ אַרְבָּעִים יוֹם וְאַרְבָּעִים לָיְלָה׃
12. The rain fell on the earth forty days and forty nights. |
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| בְּעֶצֶם הַיּוֹם הַזֶּה בָּא נֹחַ וְשֵׁם־וְחָם וָיֶפֶת בְּנֵי־נֹחַ וְאֵשֶׁת נֹחַ וּשְׁלֹשֶׁת נְשֵׁי־בָנָיו אִתָּם אֶל־הַתֵּבָה׃
13. That same day Noah and Noah’s sons, Shem, Ham, and Japheth, went into the ark, with Noah’s wife and the three wives of his sons—
הֵמָּה וְכׇל־הַחַיָּה לְמִינָהּ וְכׇל־הַבְּהֵמָה לְמִינָהּ וְכׇל־הָרֶמֶשׂ הָרֹמֵשׂ עַל־הָאָרֶץ לְמִינֵהוּ וְכׇל־הָעוֹף לְמִינֵהוּ כֹּל צִפּוֹר כׇּל־כָּנָף׃ 14. they and all beasts of every kind, all cattle of every kind, all creatures of every kind that creep on the earth, and all birds of every kind, every bird, every winged thing.
וַיָּבֹאוּ אֶל־נֹחַ אֶל־הַתֵּבָה שְׁנַיִם שְׁנַיִם מִכׇּל־הַבָּשָׂר אֲשֶׁר־בּוֹ רוּחַ חַיִּים׃ 15. They came to Noah into the ark, two each of all flesh in which there was breath of life.
וְהַבָּאִים זָכָר וּנְקֵבָה מִכׇּל־בָּשָׂר בָּאוּ כַּאֲשֶׁר צִוָּה אֹתוֹ אֱלֹהִים 16. Thus they that entered comprised male and female of all flesh, as God had commanded him.
-The following was possibly a later insertion by an editor:-[2] וַיִּסְגֹּר יְהֹוָה בַּעֲדוֹ׃ And YHWH shut him in. |
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וַיְהִי הַמַּבּוּל אַרְבָּעִים יוֹם עַל־הָאָרֶץ וַיִּרְבּוּ הַמַּיִם וַיִּשְׂאוּ אֶת־הַתֵּבָה וַתָּרׇם מֵעַל הָאָרֶץ׃ 17. The Flood continued forty days on the earth, and the waters increased and raised the ark so that it rose above the earth.
וַיִּגְבְּרוּ הַמַּיִם וַיִּרְבּוּ מְאֹד עַל־הָאָרֶץ וַתֵּלֶךְ הַתֵּבָה עַל־פְּנֵי הַמָּיִם׃ 18. The waters swelled and increased greatly upon the earth, and the ark drifted upon the waters. |
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| וְהַמַּיִם גָּבְרוּ מְאֹד מְאֹד עַל־הָאָרֶץ וַיְכֻסּוּ כׇּל־הֶהָרִים הַגְּבֹהִים אֲשֶׁר־תַּחַת כׇּל־הַשָּׁמָיִם׃
19. When the waters had swelled much more upon the earth, all the highest mountains everywhere under the sky were covered.
חֲמֵשׁ עֶשְׂרֵה אַמָּה מִלְמַעְלָה גָּבְרוּ הַמָּיִם וַיְכֻסּוּ הֶהָרִים׃ 20. Fifteen cubits higher did the waters swell, as the mountains were covered.
וַיִּגְוַע כׇּל־בָּשָׂר הָרֹמֵשׂ עַל־הָאָרֶץ בָּעוֹף וּבַבְּהֵמָה וּבַחַיָּה וּבְכׇל־הַשֶּׁרֶץ הַשֹּׁרֵץ עַל־הָאָרֶץ וְכֹל הָאָדָם׃ 21. And all flesh that stirred on earth perished—birds, cattle, beasts, and all the things that swarmed upon the earth, and all mankind.
כֹּל אֲשֶׁר נִשְׁמַת־רוּחַ חַיִּים בְּאַפָּיו מִכֹּל אֲשֶׁר בֶּחָרָבָה מֵתוּ׃ 22. All in whose nostrils was the merest breath of life, all that was on dry land, died. |
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| וַיִּמַח אֶת־כׇּל־הַיְקוּם אֲשֶׁר עַל־פְּנֵי הָאֲדָמָה מֵאָדָם עַד־בְּהֵמָה עַד־רֶמֶשׂ וְעַד־עוֹף הַשָּׁמַיִם וַיִּמָּחוּ מִן־הָאָרֶץ וַיִּשָּׁאֶר אַךְ־נֹחַ וַאֲשֶׁר אִתּוֹ בַּתֵּבָה׃
23. All existence on earth was blotted out—man, cattle, creeping things, and birds of the sky; they were blotted out from the earth. Only Noah was left, and those with him in the ark. |
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| וַיִּגְבְּרוּ הַמַּיִם עַל־הָאָרֶץ חֲמִשִּׁים וּמְאַת יוֹם׃
24. And when the waters had swelled on the earth one hundred and fifty days.
וַיִּזְכֹּר אֱלֹהִים אֶת־נֹחַ וְאֵת כׇּל־הַחַיָּה וְאֶת־כׇּל־הַבְּהֵמָה אֲשֶׁר אִתּוֹ בַּתֵּבָה וַיַּעֲבֵר אֱלֹהִים רוּחַ עַל־הָאָרֶץ וַיָּשֹׁכּוּ הַמָּיִם׃ 1. God remembered Noah and all the beasts and all the cattle that were with him in the ark, and God caused a wind to blow across the earth, and the waters subsided.
וַיִּסָּכְרוּ מַעְיְנֹת תְּהוֹם וַאֲרֻבֹּת הַשָּׁמָיִם וַיִּכָּלֵא הַגֶּשֶׁם מִן־הַשָּׁמָיִם׃ 2. The fountains of the deep and the floodgates of the sky were stopped up, and the rain from the sky was held back;
וַיָּשֻׁבוּ הַמַּיִם מֵעַל הָאָרֶץ הָלוֹךְ וָשׁוֹב וַיַּחְסְרוּ הַמַּיִם מִקְצֵה חֲמִשִּׁים וּמְאַת יוֹם׃ 3. the waters then receded steadily from the earth. At the end of one hundred and fifty days the waters diminished,
וַתָּנַח הַתֵּבָה בַּחֹדֶשׁ הַשְּׁבִיעִי בְּשִׁבְעָה־עָשָׂר יוֹם לַחֹדֶשׁ עַל הָרֵי אֲרָרָט׃ 4. so that in the seventh month, on the seventeenth day of the month, the ark came to rest on the mountains of Ararat.
וְהַמַּיִם הָיוּ הָלוֹךְ וְחָסוֹר עַד הַחֹדֶשׁ הָעֲשִׂירִי בָּעֲשִׂירִי בְּאֶחָד לַחֹדֶשׁ נִרְאוּ רָאשֵׁי הֶהָרִים׃ 5. The waters went on diminishing until the tenth month; in the tenth month, on the first of the month, the tops of the mountains became visible. |
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| וַיְהִי מִקֵּץ אַרְבָּעִים יוֹם וַיִּפְתַּח נֹחַ אֶת־חַלּוֹן הַתֵּבָה אֲשֶׁר עָשָׂה׃
6. At the end of forty days, Noah opened the window of the ark that he had made
וַיְשַׁלַּח אֶת־הָעֹרֵב וַיֵּצֵא יָצוֹא וָשׁוֹב עַד־יְבֹשֶׁת הַמַּיִם מֵעַל הָאָרֶץ׃ 7. and sent out the raven; it went to and from until the waters had dried up from the earth.[3]
וַיְשַׁלַּח אֶת־הַיּוֹנָה מֵאִתּוֹ לִרְאוֹת הֲקַלּוּ הַמַּיִם מֵעַל פְּנֵי הָאֲדָמָה׃ 8. Then he sent out the dove to see whether the waters had decreased from the surface of the ground.
וְלֹא־מָצְאָה הַיּוֹנָה מָנוֹחַ לְכַף־רַגְלָהּ וַתָּשׇׁב אֵלָיו אֶל־הַתֵּבָה כִּי־מַיִם עַל־פְּנֵי כׇל־הָאָרֶץ וַיִּשְׁלַח יָדוֹ וַיִּקָּחֶהָ וַיָּבֵא אֹתָהּ אֵלָיו אֶל־הַתֵּבָה׃ 9. And the dove could not find a resting place for its foot, and returned to him to the ark, for there was water over all the earth. So putting out his hand, he took it into the ark with him.
וַיָּחֶל עוֹד שִׁבְעַת יָמִים אֲחֵרִים וַיֹּסֶף שַׁלַּח אֶת־הַיּוֹנָה מִן־הַתֵּבָה׃ 10. He waited another seven days, and again sent out the dove from the ark.
וַתָּבֹא אֵלָיו הַיּוֹנָה לְעֵת עֶרֶב וְהִנֵּה עֲלֵה־זַיִת טָרָף בְּפִיהָ וַיֵּדַע נֹחַ כִּי־קַלּוּ הַמַּיִם מֵעַל הָאָרֶץ׃ 11. The dove came back to him toward evening, and there in its bill was a plucked-off olive leaf! Then Noah knew that the waters had decreased on the earth.
וַיִּיָּחֶל עוֹד שִׁבְעַת יָמִים אֲחֵרִים וַיְשַׁלַּח אֶת־הַיּוֹנָה וְלֹא־יָסְפָה שׁוּב־אֵלָיו עוֹד׃ 12. He waited still another seven days and sent the dove forth; and it did not return to him any more. |
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13. In the six hundred and first year, in the first month, on the first of the month, the waters began to dry from the earth; |
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| וַיָּסַר נֹחַ אֶת־מִכְסֵה הַתֵּבָה וַיַּרְא וְהִנֵּה חָרְבוּ פְּנֵי הָאֲדָמָה׃
and when Noah removed the covering of the ark, he saw that the surface of the ground was drying. |
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| וּבַחֹדֶשׁ הַשֵּׁנִי בְּשִׁבְעָה וְעֶשְׂרִים יוֹם לַחֹדֶשׁ יָבְשָׁה הָאָרֶץ׃
14. And in the second month, on the twenty-seventh day of the month, the earth was dry.
וַיְדַבֵּר אֱלֹהִים אֶל־נֹחַ לֵאמֹר׃ 15. God spoke to Noah, saying,
צֵא מִן־הַתֵּבָה אַתָּה וְאִשְׁתְּךָ וּבָנֶיךָ וּנְשֵׁי־בָנֶיךָ אִתָּךְ׃ 16. “Come out of the ark, together with your wife, your sons, and your sons’ wives.
כׇּל־הַחַיָּה אֲשֶׁר־אִתְּךָ מִכׇּל־בָּשָׂר בָּעוֹף וּבַבְּהֵמָה וּבְכׇל־הָרֶמֶשׂ הָרֹמֵשׂ עַל־הָאָרֶץ (הוצא) [הַיְצֵא] אִתָּךְ וְשָׁרְצוּ בָאָרֶץ וּפָרוּ וְרָבוּ עַל־הָאָרֶץ׃ 17. Bring out with you every living thing of all flesh that is with you: birds, animals, and everything that creeps on earth; and let them swarm on the earth and be fertile and increase on earth.”
וַיֵּצֵא־נֹחַ וּבָנָיו וְאִשְׁתּוֹ וּנְשֵׁי־בָנָיו אִתּוֹ׃ 18. Noah came out, together with his sons, his wife, and his sons’ wives.
כׇּל־הַחַיָּה כׇּל־הָרֶמֶשׂ וְכׇל־הָעוֹף כֹּל רוֹמֵשׂ עַל־הָאָרֶץ לְמִשְׁפְּחֹתֵיהֶם יָצְאוּ מִן־הַתֵּבָה׃ 19. Every animal, every creeping thing, and every bird, everything that stirs on earth came out of the ark by families. |
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| וַיִּבֶן נֹחַ מִזְבֵּחַ לַיהֹוָה וַיִּקַּח מִכֹּל הַבְּהֵמָה הַטְּהֹרָה וּמִכֹּל הָעוֹף הַטָּהוֹר וַיַּעַל עֹלֹת בַּמִּזְבֵּחַ׃
20. Then Noah built an altar to YHWH and, taking of every clean animal and of every clean bird, he offered burnt offerings on the altar.
וַיָּרַח יְהֹוָה אֶת־רֵיחַ הַנִּיחֹחַ וַיֹּאמֶר יְהֹוָה אֶל־לִבּוֹ לֹא־אֹסִף לְקַלֵּל עוֹד אֶת־הָאֲדָמָה בַּעֲבוּר הָאָדָם כִּי יֵצֶר לֵב הָאָדָם רַע מִנְּעֻרָיו וְלֹא־אֹסִף עוֹד לְהַכּוֹת אֶת־כׇּל־חַי כַּאֲשֶׁר עָשִׂיתִי׃ 21. And YHWH smelled the pleasing odor, and YHWH said to Himself: “Never again will I doom the earth because of man, since the devisings of man’s mind are evil from his youth; nor will I ever again destroy every living being, as I have done.
עֹד כׇּל־יְמֵי הָאָרֶץ זֶרַע וְקָצִיר וְקֹר וָחֹם וְקַיִץ וָחֹרֶף וְיוֹם וָלַיְלָה לֹא יִשְׁבֹּתוּ׃ 22. So long as the earth endures, Seedtime and harvest, Cold and heat, Summer and winter, Day and night Shall not cease.” |
Counterargument from the Epic of Gilgamesh
In defense of the unification of the flood narrative, several arguments have been made by scholars to prove that only one author is responsible for the composition of flood narrative. This argument is from the comparison of the Genesis Flood with Gilgamesh’s Flood narrative in his famous Epic. The argument goes like this. The flood narrative in Genesis – as we have it today with both alleged sources combined – mimics in an orderly fashion the details of the Gilgamesh Epic. But if we spit the sources into two sources, P and non-P, we will not have this mimicking of the Gilgamesh Epic. This would suggest that a single author wrote the entirety of the Flood narrative as we have it today in Genesis, as opposed to two separate versions as the source theory suggests. Similarly, the argument goes further, the non-P account is incomplete when looked at separately from the alleged P source. It is missing key details such as the command to build the ark and the exit from the ark after the flood.
| Non-P | P (Priestly) | Story element | Gilgamesh Epic XI | |
| 1. | 6:5-8 | 6:9-13 | morality factor | +[4] |
| 2. | 6:14 | Materials | + | |
| 3. | 6:15 | dimensions | + | |
| 4. | 6:16 | decks | + | |
| 5. | 6:17-22 | covenant / population | – | |
| 6. | 7:1-5 | population | + | |
| 7. | 7:7-10, 12, 16b, 17b, 22-23 | 7:6, 11, 13-16a, 17a, 18-21 | flood | + |
| 8. | 7:24-8:5 | mountaintop landing | + | |
| 9. | 8:6-12 | birds sent forth | + | |
| 10. | 8:13-14 | dry land | – | |
| 11. | 8:15-19 | all set free | + | |
| 12. | 8:20-22 | sacrifices | + |
The counter-counterargument
Several points can be made in response to this counterargument from the Epic of Gilgamesh.
- By demonstrating that the Epic of Gilgamesh was mimicked by the Genesis author, we leave the mainstream Orthodox view of a historical, literal, divinely-transmitted, Mosaic-authored, non-influenced Flood narrative and enter a more liberal-thinking and critical approach to Genesis and Torah as a whole; one that is open to Mesopotamian influence on biblical narratives. The question then becomes if there’s still a religious agenda to defend the unification of the flood narrative when we are either way admitting the influence that the Mesopotamian Epic had on the Torah.
- The Torah clearly has no agenda of mimicking the Epic of Gilgamesh, as it differs from it in key details besides for the theological differences (such as a pantheon of gods verses a singular God). For example, the dimensions of the Genesis ark differ drastically from the square-shaped ark in Gilgamesh’s Epic. Also, the flood duration is 7 days by Gilgamesh, in contrast to Genesis. Also, the Torah is very similar to the myth of Atrahasis, especially in the phrase there that “from this day no Deluge shall take place and the human race [shall] endure forever!” comparable to Gen. 9:11 where God promises the exact same promise. This promise is not found in the Epic of Gilgamesh (nor in any other flood myth).
- The P account in itself pretty much parallels Gilgamesh. It does not include sacrifices, as Gilgamesh does, since P believes that sacrifices were only allowed when God introduced it to Aaron to serve him (which also explains why only two of each species are commanded to be brought upon the ark, whereas according to the non-P account more of the pure animals are commanded to be brought on in order for there to be enough for Noah’s sacrifices after the Flood). The other difference is the birds that are sent out in the Gilgamesh Epic but not in the P account (although according to some scholars, some of the birds-sending is from the P-account). But we ought not to make conclusions just because P decided to differ on Gilgamesh on just one point (as for motifs of differing in this particular case, P is interested in commands and fulfillments of them; therefore Noah is only to leave the ark when God instructs him to – not after he sends out birds to determine the dryness of the land).
- Even if we assume that specifically the full narrative as we have it now parallels the Gilgamesh Epic, that would not be in contradiction to the source theory of two interwoven narratives. We can suggest that the Redactor – the one who combined the two narratives – had an agenda to mimic the flood story found in the Epic of Gilgamesh and he therefore copy-and-pasted from both sources to select the details from both that would unitedly equal the Gilgamesh flood story.
- In response to the argument that the non-P account is incomplete:
These “missing” elements from the non-P account aren’t actual missing points when one reads the story without expecting to see those details stated explicitly. Instead, these details are implied by other details in the narrative so that there’s no need to explicitly state these details as the lengthier P account does. For example, God’s command to Noah to “go into the ark” implies that there was an ark for him to enter. The making of this ark is insignificant for the brief storyline. Similarly, when it says that Noah removed the ark covering, saw that the land was dry, and sacrificed animals – it implies that he left the ark.
Counterargument from the chiastic structure
This interesting counterargument proposes that the Flood narrative forms a literary convention often used at the time known as a chiastic structure. A chiasm is when A,B,C,D continue on to D,C,B,A. Meaning to say, that the first half is paralleled in the second half in the reverse order. A very basic example for this is “His name was John and he was the son of Jack, Jack had a son and John was his name” – symbolizing A,B,C followed by C,B,A. The argument here is that the Flood narrative in Genesis is repeatedly repetitive since it wishes to convey a chiastic structure. This is used to explain all the repetitions in the Genesis Flood. Here is a chart to demonstrate the chiasm in Genesis.[6]
A Noah: the righteous man (6:9)
B Noah’s sons: Shem, Ham and Japheth (6:10)
C Earth filled with violence and corruption (6:11-12)
D First divine address (1): earth to be destroyed (6:13)
E First divine address (2): Noah to build Ark (6:14-22)
F Second divine address (1): command to enter Ark (7:1-3)
G Second divine address (2): 7-day wait for Flood (7:4-5)
H 7 days waiting for flood (repeated) (7:6-10)
I Beginning of Flood and entry into Ark (7:11-15)
J God shuts the door (7:16b)
K 40 days flood, waters increase (7:17a-18)
L Waters prevail, mountains covered (7:19-20)
M 150 days waters prevails (7:21-24)
N GOD REMEMBERS NOAH (8:1a)
M´ 150 days waters abate (8:1b-5)
L´ Waters abate, mountain tops visible (8:5)
K´ 40 days (end of) (8:6a)
J´ Noah opens window of ark (8:6b)
I´ Raven and dove leave ark (8:7-9)
H´ 7 days waiting for waters to subside (8:10-11)
G´ 7 days waiting for waters to subside (8:12-14)
F´ Third divine address: command to leave Ark (8:15-19)
E´ Noah builds an altar (8:20)
D´ God’s commitment to preserve the earth (8:21-22)
C´ Fourth divine address: covenant blessing and peace (9:1-17)
B´ Noah’s sons: Shem, Ham and Japheth (9:18-27)
A´Noah: life and death (9:28-29)
The counter-counterargument
This fascinating chiastic structure in Genesis is testimony to the mental capability of the human mind – rather than testimony to a singular authorship of the Genesis flood. This chiastic structure argument fails on several grounds as we shall point out:
- The chiastic structure would only answer the duplications issue, in explaining that the repetitions are necessary for the chiasm. But it would not explain the contradictions and the striking patterns found between the split narratives such as the names YHWH and Elohim.
- This would suggest that even if there were a chiasm here, it would be the product of the Redactor who combined the two sources and skillfully arranged them to create this chiasm. By no means would a chiastic structure prove an original single author.
- The chiasm itself is very weak and falls apart upon closer examination. Firstly, the story itself is a reversible one leaving us to expect a partial chiasm in the narrative. The story begins with God deciding to destroy mankind via a flood and afterward deciding to never do it again. In the beginning we’d expect a formal introduction to Noah as well as farewell at the end at his passing. Similarly, the story begins with entering the ark along with the animals, and ends with the departure from the ark together with the animals.
Beyond that, the other chiasms are mostly mental gymnastics to achieve the desired chiastic results. A plain reading of the verses will not yield the chiasm portrayed in the chart above. It is only through selection and omission that one can create the chiasm of the above chart. Many points are omitted in order to create the parallelism, and had the author actually intended a chiasm he would have made it more obvious in the narrative.[7] In addition, some of the connections in the chiasm are arbitrary rather than actual parallelisms (for example B and B’ as well as C and C’).
The consequences of this view
While this view would blow a hard hit to traditional Orthodox views of singular and Mosaic authorship of Genesis, this view can work out in a rationalist approach to Judaism. Genesis is purely mythological/historical with no religious laws or theologies stemming from it. Thus, even if Moses wouldn’t have written Genesis, this should have little impact on the religiously observant Jew. See here for a discussion about general post-Mosaic additions to Torah. In fact, one can even square this with a mosaic authorship, if they so insist, as the Midrash says that Moses used earlier manuscripts to compile Genesis.[8]
In fulfillment of the Maimonidean principle of “accept the truth from whomever it comes from,” we need to evaluate the evidence presented here in judgment of the Flood narrative. It’s important that we put aside any pre-notions that we walked in with, opting instead for objective analysis rather than discarding the evidence in favor of what makes us feel more comfortable with our religious sensitivities and childhood education.
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[1] Here are a few argumentations that Genesis borrowed from the Epic of Gilgamesh rather than the reverse, as many Orthodox people might assume.
- The inferior cultures almost always adopt the customs, language, and ideas from the superior culture that dominates the world at that time. Babylon dominated the earth at the time (especially when the Israelites were exiled into Babylon) and the Israelites were never a major regional player in the Ancient Near East. Thus it is much more likely that the inferior Israelites adopted the flood myth from the superior Babylonians rather than the reverse.
- Many copies of the Epic of Gilgamesh were found throughout the ancient Near East. Some of them were even translated into the native language. This is testimony to the great influence that the Epic had in the ancient Near East.
- A copy of part of the Epic was even found in Megiddo, Israel in the 14th century BCE, demonstrating the far-reaching influence of the Epic even throughout Canaan. Megiddo was soon to become a major Israelite center.
- Flooding was common in Mesopotamia as the Tigris and Euphrates would often overflow and flood the nearby cities. In contrast, flooding was not common in Israel, and Israelite literature like the Curses in Leviticus 26 and Deuteronomy 28 talk of droughts – which was very common in Israel – rather than of floods. This would suggest that the flood myth would have developed in Mesopotamia where fears of flooding were rampant and/or there were memories of recent flooding.
- The mountain range of Ararat, Hebrew toponym for Urartu region, is at the headwaters of the Tigris and Euphrates, suggesting a Mesopotamian origin of the flood myth.
- 6. Even if Genesis preceded the Gilgamesh Epic (something only traditional views claim while scholarship rejects), still the myth of Atrahasis – the earliest universal flood myth found – definitely preceded Genesis coming from the 18th century BCE while Genesis, according to the mainstream Orthodox view was written in the 13th century BCE.
[2][2] Alternatively, it belongs in the non-P. However, I am reluctant to place it in the non-P account since the Redactor seems to be interweaving the two accounts in chunks of several verses or at least a complete verse at a time. Therefore, it would seem unlikely that he would place this minor non-P phrase at the place it is now, right after the P account. Instead, he would have placed it after verse 7 or 12 of the non-P account. For this reason I believe that is rather the Redactor’s additional note.
[3] Scholars debate into which account to place the birds-sending, with some even splitting the dove and raven into separate strands.
[4] Plus indicates that the story element is found in the Gilgamesh Epic a while minus indicates that its missing from the Epic.
[5] Chart from Gary A Rendsburg, The Biblical Flood Story in Light of the Gilgamesh Flood Account.
[6] This chiasm is loosely founded on those given by Bernhard W. Anderson, “From analysis to synthesis: the interpretation of Genesis 1–11”, Journal of Biblical Literature 97 (1978): 23-39 and Gordon Wenham, “The coherence of the Flood narrative”, Vetus Testamentum 28 (1978): 336-48, but with the addition of Genesis 9:18-29, based on Bullinger’s Companion Bible (1909-1922), which sees the entire Flood account (Genesis 6:9-9:29) as forming a chiasm.
[7] For a more detailed rebuttal, see J.A. Emerton in An Examination of the Flood Narrative in Genesis pt. II, Vetus Testamentum XXXVIII, 1 (1998).
[8] See Shemos Rabbah 5:22 and Midrash Aggadah on Shemos 5:9.
I agree. Even if the Norah story is a direct copy of the Gilgamesh story, this does not dilute religion. It could be that the Bible used pagan myths as a foundation but adds a twist teaching moral lessons.
There seem to be two accounts. I was never a fan of this idea. I heard of it for the first time in a documentary I saw about Biblical critisism. I am not a fan of Bible crititsim. But once one realizes that the Torah is not trying to teach true history and facts the difficulty is removed. The Bible is not a history book. But a book that teaches some truths about G-d and moral lessons. Maimonides wrote that the Torah does three things: teach some truths and helps improve the self and society.
Thank you for the essay.