Where did Half the World Go: Table of Nations in Genesis 10

Overview: A study identifying the people-nations in Genesis Ch. 10. The glaring absence of any nations and civilizations beyond the known world of the ancient Near East, including the great Indian and Chinese civilizations, as well as Northern Europe, South/West Africa, and the Americas.

Genesis Ch. 10 takes off from the Flood narrative in which Noah’s family alone survives. His three sons, Shem, Ham, and Japheth are to repopulate the world and divide planet Earth between themselves. Well at least planet Earth as known to the ancient Near East. People lived far beyond the sphere of trade of the Middle East and its surroundings. Civilizations in China and India sprout out much before many of the nations mentioned in the Table, making the accuracy of the Table very questionable. Tribes and empires also already existed in the Americas and Australia.

It seems that the Table was made with the limited knowledge that the ancients had of their world, which is why more than half the world is absent from the Table of Nations. It also has little consistency in its nation grouping, although generally splitting them by geography. Some of the nations listed in separate groupings are of similar genetics (e.g Canaan, attributed to Ham, and the Caucasus nations attributed to Japheth). Some of the nations listed together are of separate ethnicities and geographies (e.g. the cities of Nimrod’s Sumerian/Babylonian kingdom, attributed to Ham, and that of Kush and Northeast Africa).

There are also probable mistakes in the Table. For example, the Philistines are described as the progeny of Egypt; and that would be the first assumption based on geographical proximity and the military ties between Egypt and Philistine during much of the Bronze Age. Yet archeology overwhelmingly supports the theory that the Philistines originated from Greece and other South European ancestry who migrated to the Southern Canaanite coastline (more on this later). Another historical issue with the Table is the man named Nimrod. He is allegedly the first major king of Sumer/Babylon, yet none of the ancient kings-lists of that time mention a Nimrod or anything similar to that name. Additionally, he is ascribed to the Ham line, and it is inconceivable that a foreigner would create an empire in Sumer and would be accepted by the locals.^[1]

Another problem is that the Philistines and Caphtorim are said to come from the Pathrusim and the Casluhim. Yet in Jeremiah 47:4 and Amos 9:7 the Philistines are described as being from the remnants of Caphtor, as does Ez. 25:16 and Zeph. 2:5. Caphtor is synonymous with Philistine in Deut. 2:23. Caphtor is considered by most scholars to be Caphtor to be the archaic name for Crete, the largest island in Greece, as well as its surrounding islands. In Jeremiah 47:4 Caphtor is defined as an island.

Yet another problem is the subjectivity of the Table. Had it been an objective ancestral Table of the world, we would expect to see a diversity of nations all clustered around populated areas. Instead, we see a diversity of nations specifically in the Levant (Canaan and Phoenicia/Lebanon), and less and less diversity in heavily populated areas such as Anatolia, Mesopotamia, and East of the Tigris. This would represent the deeper knowledge that the biblical author would have known of his surroundings and the lesser knowledge of farther lands.

 

Dating the composition of the Table of Nations

Dating the Table is exceedingly difficult since there are, in fact, obvious layers within the Table itself. These additions of later generations added “commentary” of their own which became a part of the actual biblical text. Here is one example. All the nations are listed in the singular (e.g. Canaan, Heth, Javan etc.) except for some subgroups which are listed as a people in the plural (e.g. Ludim, Naphtulim, Lehabim, and Anamim in v. 13). Similarly, the supplementary word et (roughly translated as the in English) is used in these additional layers, and is absent from the singular nation names. Had it been the same author for the entire chapter, we would expect the same grammar used throughout. Another apparent layer is the sidestory about Nimrod that interrupts the otherwise organized list.

Evidently some of the chapter, perhaps the bulk of it, was written after the 7th-century BCE. The reason for this assumption is because many Assyrian names are used to describe these nations, although being called other names before the Assyrians. The city of Calah (verse 11) was an insignificant village until it was built up in the 7th-century BCE. Yet it is singled out among the great cities of the time, suggesting a 7th-century BCE composition. Another example is the Philistines mentioned as an ethnicity (adjacent to Egypt); yet historians believe the Philistines only migrated to Canaan in the 12th-century BCE, thus it is unlikely that this was written before or during the 12th-century BCE.

However, there are some indications of an earlier Bronze Age composition of at least certain layers of the Table. One example is Sidon (first-born of Canaan, conveying unrivaled status) representing the Lebanese Phoenicians without Tyre, who in later Iron Age times was equal in strength and prestige to Sidon. Another example is the usage of Sodom and Gomorrah as geographical markers for Canaan. These cities were destroyed around the 16th-century BCE, suggesting an early composition of that verse.

The Table was not written with prophecy by Moses since it’s filled with error and lacks many nations that were unknown to ancient Near Easterners, as pointed out earlier.

 

Nation duplications

Throughout the list of the 70 people-nations, there are several duplicates. These are Havillah (v. 7 and 30, represented in the Ham and Shem line, both in Arabia), Sheba (v. 7 and 29, represented in the Ham and Shem line, both in Arabia), and Lud (v. 14 and 23, represented in both the Ham and Shem ancestry). Sheba is also mentioned in a later ancestry line to Abraham (Gen. 25:3), as is Dedan (v. 7 and Gen. 25:3).

These duplications can be explained in two ways. One is differing traditions/opinions on the ancestry of these specific nations. Different writers write their view, resulting in the duplications in the unified biblical text we now have. Another approach is to interpret the two ancestry lines as being a result of a mixing of peoples in those specific nations. For example, the cities of Sheba may have constituted people of the Shem line and migration from Kush into those lands, gave the population another ancestry line.

 

Map of the Table

It should be noted that this map is not for certain. There are several assumptions taken into account, as well as uncertainties. The especially questionable ones were affixed with a question mark at the end, with a few nations not even making it into the map due to unknown whereabouts.

 

 

Identifying the nations

10

1

וְאֵ֙לֶּה֙ תּוֹלְדֹ֣ת בְּנֵי־נֹ֔חַ שֵׁ֖ם חָ֣ם וָיָ֑פֶת וַיִּוָּלְד֥וּ לָהֶ֛ם בָּנִ֖ים אַחַ֥ר הַמַּבּֽוּל׃

These are the lines of Shem, Ham, and Japheth, the sons of Noah: sons were born to them after the Flood.

Table of Nations: Overall this is split by Europe, Asia, and Africa. Notably absent from the list (despite several unknowns in the list of names) are the tribes of East Asia, Northern Europe, the Americas, and Australia. These tribes were unknown to the Ancient Near East and the scribe who wrote this Table of Nations.

All these names are tribe or city names from around the world. If taken literally, Genesis implies that all these cities were named after these founding figures who were closely related and split the Earth among themselves. If not taken literally, the intention is to show the genealogy of nations using the metaphor of immediate children. The latter seems more plausible both realistically and archaeologically (since many of these cities were only founded after Noah’s times). The cities with close geographical relationships (and some argue even political relations) are presented as genetically related in this Table of Nations.

70 nations and the 70 sons of God: In Canaanite mythology, EL is said to have had 70 god-sons together with Asherah, His goddess.^[2] Although the Torah clearly rejects Asherah (or at least worship of it), perhaps it understood these 70 inferior gods as being the personal gods of the 70 nations (depending on how we count the nations) recorded in Genesis Ch. 10. Whereas the Israelites, who are notably absent from the Table of Nations in Gen. 10, are above the 70 nations and have YHWH, or EL, as their personal God.^[3] The Israelites may even have a 70 component of their own, with the 70 descendants of Jacob said to have migrated to Egypt (Ex. 1:5).

Shem: The etymology of the name is uncertain, although an interesting theory has been proposed. In Assyria-Babylonian usage sumu refers to both a son and a name. As the eldest son of Noah, he may have been called “son,” synonymous with “name.”

Japheth: Many scholars connect this name with Iapetus, also called Japetus. A Greek Titan, grandfather of the Greek Flood hero (equivalent to Noah), Deucalion, who is said to have entered a box with his wife and 3 sons. The Greek race is said to have come from these Titans, according to Greek mythology. These scholars understand the biblical name Japheth to be inspired by this influential Greek Homer literature. Japheth’s direct child is said to be Greece in the upcoming verse.

Ham: Some scholars go even further to connect Ham with Greek Titan Cronus – brother of Iapetus – who famously castrates his father. Similarly, some Midrashim understand Ham’s sin (in the previous chapter) to have been castration of his father. This theory is speculation but definitely cannot be ruled out. The name Ham means “hot” in Hebrew. This may have been the nickname for the tribes living in the hotter African/Arabian regions, and being darker than the other nations.

2

בְּנֵ֣י יֶ֔פֶת גֹּ֣מֶר וּמָג֔וֹג וּמָדַ֖י וְיָוָ֣ן וְתֻבָ֑ל וּמֶ֖שֶׁךְ וְתִירָֽס׃

The descendants of Japheth: Gomer, Magog, Madai, Javan, Tubal, Meshech, and Tiras.

Children of Japheth: Overall, Japheth represents all the Indo-European (Eurasian) peoples of Asia Minor (Anatolia; modern-day Turkey) and the Mediterranean islands. However, since antiquity many nations have intermingled resulting in diversity among current world populations.

Gomer: Probably the Cimmerians of Northern Anatolia (Turkey) and originally from farther North in the Caucasus region between the Caspian and Black Sea. Their name likely originates from an Old Iranian term Gāmīra or Gmīra, meaning “mobile unit”, or from the word Gayamira, meaning “union of clans” in Old Iranian.

Magog: Gog was his leader in the times of Ezekiel (38:2). He also reigned over neighboring Meshech and Tubal at that time. Location unknown but Ezekiel describes it as being at the utmost North from Israel’s perspective (38:15). From context here, it would seem to be located somewhere in Anatolia or the Caucasus region now encompassing Ukraine and Georgia. The origin of the name Magog is unclear. It may come from the Akkadian mat Gugi, “land of Gog”, that is, the land of Gyges: Lydia. Josephus refers to Magog son of Japheth as progenitor of Scythians, or peoples north of the Black Sea. According to him, the Greeks called Scythia Magogia.

Madai: Iranian Medes, an ancient tribe inhabiting Northwest Iran, much attested to in the later books of Tanakh as having forged an empire with the Persians.

In Greek myth a princess called Medea from Colchis, a Greek colony on the Black Sea, travels to Greece with Jason of the Argonauts and becomes pregnant by a king of Athens. She flees Greece to Asia and gives birth to a son she calls Medus, and thus for the Greeks, Medus is a descendant of Japetos via his Greek father, the king of Athens. The 8th-5th centuries BC Greeks understood that the Medes were Medus’ descendants.

Additionally, the Medes spoke an Indo-European language similar to those of the other Japhethites.

Javan: From Daniel Ch. 11 it’s clear that Javan refers to the island-states of Greece who were to overtake the Persian empire. From Isaiah 66:19 it is clear that Javan refers to a distant island. More specifically, the name likely stems from what’s called the Ionians, one of the four major tribes that the Greeks saw themselves from.

Meshech: Josephus identifies Meshech as the Mushki tribe in Anatolia (possibly the same as Moschia in Greek sources).

Tubal: An Anatolian kingdom mentioned in Assyrian documents. Modern day Georgians mostly descend from this tribe.

Tiras: Josephus identified them as the Thracians living in Thrace, a region above Anatolia connecting Europe with Asia. It’s region is today split by Turkey, Bulgaria, and Greece. Most scholars accept this association.

3

וּבְנֵ֖י גֹּ֑מֶר אַשְׁכְּנַ֥ז וְרִיפַ֖ת וְתֹגַרְמָֽה׃

The descendants of Gomer: Ashkenaz, Riphath, and Togarmah.

Ashkenaz: His name is related to the Assyrian Aškūza (Aškuzai, Iškuzai), a people who expelled the Cimmerians from the Armenian highland of the Upper Euphrates area. They were living primarily in the Eurasian steppes of Kazakhstan, in Russian steppes of the Siberian, Ural, Volga and Southern regions, and in Ukraine. The region was called Scythia. To this day, there is a city named Iskenaz in Northern Turkey. In later times, Ashkenaz became a nickname for the Germanic tribes in rabbinic writings.

Riphath: The name appears in some copies of I Chronicles as “Diphath”, due to the similarities of the characters resh and dalet in the Hebrew and Aramaic alphabets. Its identity is unknown although the most popular view is that it refers to the tribes living in the Riphean Mountains mentioned in many ancient writings as being in the utmost North and responsible for the River Don, the Vulga, and the Dnipro River. Thus, it was probably located in the Ukraine or Southeast Russia.

Togarma: Identified as Tegerama, an important Anatolian city mentioned in ancient documents but whose whereabouts are unknown

4

וּבְנֵ֥י יָוָ֖ן אֱלִישָׁ֣ה וְתַרְשִׁ֑ישׁ כִּתִּ֖ים וְדֹדָנִֽים׃

The descendants of Javan: Elishah and Tarshish, the Kittim and the Dodanim.

Elishah: Alashiya, also spelled Alasiya, also known as the Kingdom of Alashiya, was a state which existed in the Middle and Late Bronze Ages, and was situated somewhere in the Eastern Mediterranean. It was a major source of goods, especially copper, for ancient Egypt and other states in the Ancient Near East. It is referred to in a number of the surviving texts and is now thought to be the ancient name of Cyprus, or an area of Cyprus. This was confirmed by the scientific analysis performed in the Tel Aviv University of the clay tablets which were sent from Alashiya to other rulers. Most scholars associate Elishah of Javan to be referring to Alashiya. Ez. 27:7 also refers to Elishah as an island-nation.

Tarshish: Mentioned in several ancient documents and biblical literature, the people of this city or region traded metal with the Israelites and Phoenicians. Its location is unknown although its references suggest a far-off coastal city beyond Phoenicia and perhaps in Southern Europe with a large ship fleet. It is also described as being West of Israel. There are several city names similar to Tarshish, but two main theories have gained popularity. Some modern scholars identify Tarshish with Tartessos, a port in southern Spain, described by classical authors as a source of metals for the Phoenicians, while Josephus’ identification of Tarshish with the Cilician city of Tarsus, in Northwest Anatolia, is even more widely accepted.

Kittim: Described as a naval-based peoples in Num. 24:24 and Dan. 11:30,  Kittimites are from the eastern coast of current-Cyprus, known in ancient times as Kition, or (in Latin) Citium. Referred to as Islanders in Ez. 27:6.

It was often applied to all the Aegean islands and even to the West in general, but especially the seafaring West. Josephus records:

Cethimus [son of Javan] possessed the island Cethima: it is now called Cyprus; and from that it is that all islands, and the greatest part of the sea-coasts, are named Cethim by the Hebrews: and one city there is in Cyprus that has been able to preserve its denomination; it has been called Citius [or Citium/Κίτιον] by those who use the language of the Greeks, and has not, by the use of that dialect, escaped the name of Cethim.

The expression “isles of Kittim,” found in the Book of Jeremiah 2:10 and Ezekiel 27:6, indicates that, some centuries prior to Josephus, this designation had already become a general descriptor for the Mediterranean islands.

Dodanim: Also called Rodanim in the Samaritan Pentateuch, as well as 1 Chronicles 1:7; the Septuagint has Rodioi. The Rodanim are commonly understood to be the inhabitants of Rhodes, one of the largest Greek islands – just as in this verse, Rhodanim is the child of Greece.

5

מֵ֠אֵ֠לֶּה נִפְרְד֞וּ אִיֵּ֤י הַגּוֹיִם֙ בְּאַרְצֹתָ֔ם אִ֖ישׁ לִלְשֹׁנ֑וֹ לְמִשְׁפְּחֹתָ֖ם בְּגוֹיֵהֶֽם׃

From these the island-nations branched out. [These are the descendants of Japheth] by their lands—each with its language—their clans and their nations.

Island-nations: Japheth’s descendants are described as island nations here and in Isaiah 66:19 although most of these places are merely coastal maritime cities along the Mediterranean. This is because, as found in a 7th-century BCE Babylonian world-map, people believed that these sea people were Islanders since they traded by ship despite being connected by vast stretches of land. Alternatively, the Hebrew word iyei used in this verse can be translated as maritime or coastal rather than island. But this second explanation is questionable since the word is exclusively used for islands throughout Tanakh (besides for Tarshish, which was believed to be a distant island despite being coastal).

Another possible explanation is that not all the Japhetite descendants are understood to be Islanders. Instead, the Islanders merely branched out of the aforementioned coastal and island states. These islands make up all the minor islands of Greece.

Each with its language: Yet further on we say that they had a singular unifying language (Gen. 11:1)? Torah Temima commentator on Gen. 11:1 explains that each tribe had their own unique language in addition to the unifying language (that he identifies as Hebrew). From a historical perspective, the tribes around the world have not had a unifying language and the narrative in Genesis 11 is unhistorical mythology.

Perhaps even the author of this Table of Nations in Genesis 10 is a different author than the one who wrote Gen. 11 since they each seem to present another history for the dispersion of nations. If we assume that they were written by the same author, we must suggest that the mixing of languages in Gen. 11 divided the people by family clans, giving them each their own unique language. They then each proceed to migrate to their respective locations.

6

וּבְנֵ֖י חָ֑ם כּ֥וּשׁ וּמִצְרַ֖יִם וּפ֥וּט וּכְנָֽעַן׃

The descendants of Ham: Cush, Mizraim, Put, and Canaan.

Children of Ham: Overall, Ham Represents all the North African nations and Arabian tribes as well as the Canaanite Phoenicians until Sidon. Even the great Mesopotamian city-states seem to be attributed to Kush, son of Ham. However, since antiquity many nations have intermingled resulting in diversity among current world populations.

Cush: The consensus among historians is that Cush is the area known as Nubia in ancient Egypt, covering modern-day northern Sudan, and later expanding into Ethiopia. Cush is a Hebrew name that is possibly derived from Kash, the Egyptian name of Lower Nubia and later of the Nubian kingdom at Napata, known as the Kingdom of Kush. The form Kush appears in Egyptian records as early as the reign of Mentuhotep II (21st century BC), in an inscription detailing his campaigns against the Nubian region.

Mitzrayim: Egypt.

Put: Most scholars associate Put with ancient Libya, based on several connections.

Canaan: The indigenous people of the Levant. Sometimes called Phoenicians. They were a Semitic-speaking people (cf Isaiah 19:18), putting into question why they are listed as part of Ham’s descendants of North Africa as opposed to the Semitic-speaking Semites (line of Shem). DNA testing of ancient Canaanites teaches us that they were not Black as common Midrashic folklore believes. Perhaps their placement with Ham was Israelite propaganda against their settlement in Semite territory (cf Rashi on Gen. 12:6) as well as justification for their slavery to the Semites (cf Gen. 9:25). Alternatively, they are referred to as Hamite due to their subjugation to Ham, as they were apparently a vassal state of the mighty Egyptian Empire at the time of the Table writing.

Canaan and Israel: Modern DNA sampling confirms that most Jewish groups today have at least half their DNA traced to the Canaanites.^[4] This suggests that the Israelites were a subgroup within the Canaanite ethnicity, in contrast to the biblical narrative of Abraham migrating from Ur in ancient Babylon. Alternatively, there was mass intermarriage on a scale large enough to produce such strong Canaanite DNA that even in modern times we share half our DNA with the Canaanite bodies preserved from over 3,000 years ago. Another explanation would be that the 12 sons of Jacob, along with their sons, married local Canaanite women, accounting for the high levels of Canaanite DNA in Jews today.

7

וּבְנֵ֣י כ֔וּשׁ סְבָא֙ וַֽחֲוִילָ֔ה וְסַבְתָּ֥ה וְרַעְמָ֖ה וְסַבְתְּכָ֑א וּבְנֵ֥י רַעְמָ֖ה שְׁבָ֥א וּדְדָֽן׃

The descendants of Cush: Seba, Havilah, Sabtah, Raamah, and Sabteca. The descendants of Raamah: Sheba and Dedan.

Seba: Believed to be the Kingdom of Saba in Southern Arabia.

Havillah: Also mentioned among the children of Joktan in 10:29, in what appears to be the supplementary layer of the Table (the one that includes the Hebrew word et) – see commentary to verse 13. Havilah is identified as being located near Egypt (Gen. 25:18 and I Samuel 15:7).

Sabtah: Location unknown although context in the verse here as well as linguistic similarities to Sheba and Saba would suggest somewhere in Arabia.

Raamah: The trading-goods of theirs mentioned in Ez. 27:22 reflect an Arabian dwelling near Sheba.

Sabteca: Location unknown, although context in the verse here as well as linguistic similarities to Sheba and Saba would suggest somewhere in Arabia.

Sheba: While most scholars associate this nation with Southern Arabia based on several pieces of evidence, it’s still mostly speculation. Also mentioned along with the sons of Joktan in Gen. 10:28. Similarly, mentioned as the son of Jokshan, son of Abraham, in Gen. 25:3, in Arabian context as well. The trading-goods of theirs mentioned in Ez. 27:22 reflect an Arabian dwelling. Ez. 38:13 connects Sheba with Dedan.

Dedan: Scholars associate this with an oasis and city-state in Northwestern Arabia, now part of Al-Ula, Saudi Arabia. Similarly, mentioned as the son of Jokshan, son of Abraham, in Gen. 25:3. They are mentioned as “caravans of Dedan” in Isaiah 21:13. In that context, they seem to be Arabian (Isa. 21:13, as well as 21:17 concerning Kedar, or Qatar among the Arabian descendants of Abraham – Gen. 25:13 and Ez. 27:21).

8

וְכ֖וּשׁ יָלַ֣ד אֶת־נִמְרֹ֑ד ה֣וּא הֵחֵ֔ל לִֽהְי֥וֹת גִּבֹּ֖ר בָּאָֽרֶץ׃

Cush also begot Nimrod, who was the first man of might on earth.

Nimrod: Attempts to identify him have proven fruitless, as he does not appear in any of the many Mesopotamian kings-lists. Possibly referring to Sargon the Great, the first known emperor of Mesopotamia who conquered and then unified the dozen city-states of southern Mesopotamia.

Some connect him with Naram-Sin, the most powerful of Emperors in the Akkadian dynasty. Yet others associate him with the Assyrian conqueror of Babylon, Tukulti-ninuarta I (13th-century BCE), famed character in poems (see next verse) and known for hunting game. Yet the verse doesn’t describe Assyria as part of his kingdom, making this association difficult.

Nimrud is also similar to the alternative name for the great city of Calah whose god name was Ninurta, and called Nimrud by modern archeologists.

It’s also possible that Nimrod was a figure of legend, combining several persons into this mythological character.^[5]

9

הֽוּא־הָיָ֥ה גִבֹּֽר־צַ֖יִד לִפְנֵ֣י יְהֹוָ֑ה עַל־כֵּן֙ יֵֽאָמַ֔ר כְּנִמְרֹ֛ד גִּבּ֥וֹר צַ֖יִד לִפְנֵ֥י יְהֹוָֽה׃

He was a mighty hunter by the grace of the LORD; hence the saying, “Like Nimrod a mighty hunter by the grace of the LORD.”

10

וַתְּהִ֨י רֵאשִׁ֤ית מַמְלַכְתּוֹ֙ בָּבֶ֔ל וְאֶ֖רֶךְ וְאַכַּ֣ד וְכַלְנֵ֑ה בְּאֶ֖רֶץ שִׁנְעָֽר׃

The beginning of his kingdom were Babylon, Erech, Accad, and Calneh in the land of Shinar.

Great cities of Sumer: Babylon, Akkad, and Uruk (where the modern-name Iraq may derive from) were the metropolitan supercities of the time in Southern Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq).

Calneh: Calneh’s identity remains a mystery. Some speculate that originally Calneh actually means “all of these [cities]” from the Hebrew word kulanah. However, it’s mention in Amos 6:2 should refute this theory and suggests it’s an actual city. Calneh mentioned in Isa. 10:9 and in Assyrian records is a famous Northern Mesopotamian city, not geographically near the other cities mentioned here.

Cushite king: Rather strangely, Nimrod is in the progeny of Cush/Ham, yet reigns as the major king of Sumer. This would undoubtedly not be allowed by the people who only allowed fellow countrymen to serve as their leader. Perhaps the author confused Kush with Kish, a large city in Sumer, with Kush; or the Kassites, who reigned over Babylon in early times.

11

מִן־הָאָ֥רֶץ הַהִ֖וא יָצָ֣א אַשּׁ֑וּר וַיִּ֙בֶן֙ אֶת־נִ֣ינְוֵ֔ה וְאֶת־רְחֹבֹ֥ת עִ֖יר וְאֶת־כָּֽלַח׃

From that land Asshur went forth and built Nineveh, Rehoboth-ir, Calah,

Nimrod building Ashur: An alternative reading is as follows: From that land he [Nimrod] went to Asshur and built Nineveh, Rehoboth-ir, and Calah. This alternative reading would better explain the phrase “beginning of his kingdom” in the previous verse.

Ashur: Longtime capital of Assyria (Modern day Syria).

Rehoboth-Ir: Its identity remains a mystery. The name means something like “plazas of the city.” There are several places called “Rehob,” “Rehoboth” and the like in the Bible, but no such place is known in Assyria.

Calah: Also spelled Kalhu or Kalakh, modern Nimrūd, ancient Assyrian city situated south of Mosul in northern Iraq. Although founded in the 13th-century BCE, the city remained insignificant and small until it was built up as the capital of the Neo-Assyrian Empire from the reign of Ashurnasirpal II (883–859 BCE) until about 706 BCE.

12

וְֽאֶת־רֶ֔סֶן בֵּ֥ין נִֽינְוֵ֖ה וּבֵ֣ין כָּ֑לַח הִ֖וא הָעִ֥יר הַגְּדֹלָֽה׃

and Resen between Nineveh and Calah, that is the great city.

Resen: The exact location of Resen, as well as its original name, is unknown to us today.

The great city: This is the great city: seems to be referring to Resen – not Calah – since Resen is first introduced here whereas Calah was already mentioned in previous verse. According to Jonah 1:2 and 3:2-3 the great city is Nineveh, capital of the Assyrian Empire.

13

וּמִצְרַ֡יִם יָלַ֞ד אֶת־לוּדִ֧ים וְאֶת־עֲנָמִ֛ים וְאֶת־לְהָבִ֖ים וְאֶת־נַפְתֻּחִֽים׃

And Mizraim begot the Ludim, the Anamim, the Lehabim, the Naphtuhim,

Supplementary layer in the Table: Now the text moves from singular nation-names to plural groups of people (suffixed with im in the Hebrew). It also starts using the Hebrew supplementary word et. This change of writing style suggests a new author, adding supplements to an original Table of Nation. Similarly, the abrupt description of Nimrod earlier seems like a supplementary text, as is the segment about Assyria being built.

Ludim: Also mentioned in the Shem line (11:22). But there it is part of the original Table, whereas here it is in the supplementary Table that includes et apparently written by another author with perhaps a different opinion on the origins of Ludim. Jeremiah (46:9) and Ezekiel (30:5) both refer to Ludim in the context of Cush and Puth regarding the prophecies on Egypt. This second Ludim is most likely placed on the Mediterranean in Isaiah 66:19 and in Africa in Jeremiah (46:9) and Ezekiel (30:5). Thus, it can be any of the North(east) African tribes along the Mediterranean.

Anamim: Identity unknown. A cuneiform text of the time of Sargon II of Assyria apparently refers to Egyptians under the name “Anami” (or in Hebrew plural, Anamim). They may have been an indigenous people living in Egypt. Saadiah Gaon (on this verse) connects the Anamim with the indigenous people of Alexandria, Egypt.

Lehabim: Hebrew equivalent of the Rebu or Lebu of the Egyptian inscriptions, and from them Libya and the Libyans derived their name. Also called lubim, again translated as Libyians, in II Chronicles 12:3.

Naphtuhim: Its identity is unknown but some suggest a connection to the southernmost Egyptian city of Napata. Others associate it with Memphis, Egypt. At the beginning of the New Kingdom (c. 1550 BCE), the city became known as Men-nefer (meaning “enduring and beautiful“), which became Menfe in Coptic. The name “Memphis” is the Greek adaptation of this name, which was originally the name of the pyramid of Pepi I, located west of the city.

14

וְֽאֶת־פַּתְרֻסִ֞ים וְאֶת־כַּסְלֻחִ֗ים אֲשֶׁ֨ר יָצְא֥וּ מִשָּׁ֛ם פְּלִשְׁתִּ֖ים וְאֶת־כַּפְתֹּרִֽים׃

the Pathrusim, the Casluhim, from where the Philistines came forth, and the Caphtorim.

Pathrusim: Inhabitants of upper Egypt, known as Pathros.

Casluhim: The Egyptian form of their name is preserved in the inscriptions of the Temple of Kom Ombo as the region name Kasluḥet. Many scholars connect the two on the basis of linguistic similarities.

Philistines: Believed to be an Aegean peoples who spoke a form of Greek and colonized Southwest Canaan in the 12-century BCE. Their association with Greek is based on heavy similarities in their pottery, weaponry, dress, burial methods, and cultural similarities. DNA testing also suggests Southern European ancestry.^[6] Here they are listed as a child of Egypt, either because of their geographical proximity to Egypt or their political alliance and military ties with Egypt. Alternatively, they are the sons of Egypt since they originated from Caphtor, claimed to be an Egyptian progyny.

Jeremiah 47:4 and Amos 9:7 describe the Philistines as being from the remnants of Caphtor, as does Ez. 25:16 and Zeph. 2:5. Caphtor is synonymous with Philistine in Deut. 2:23.

Caphtorim: Most scholars consider Caphtor to be the archaic name for Crete, the largest island in Greece, as well as its surrounding islands. In Jeremiah 47:4 Caphtor is defined as an island.

15

וּכְנַ֗עַן יָלַ֛ד אֶת־צִידֹ֥ן בְּכֹר֖וֹ וְאֶת־חֵֽת׃

Canaan begot Sidon, his first-born, and Heth;

Children of Canaan: Despite being the “father-nation”, Canaan is also a subgroup living within the Land of Canaan. They are described alongside the other nations of Canaan (described in the next few verses as the children of Canaan) as living in the East, along the Jordan river, and the West, along the Mediterranean (Num. 13:29).

Sidon: Located in Lebanon just North of ancient Israel, Sidon was one of the most important Phoenician cities, and it may have been the oldest. From there and other ports, a great Mediterranean commercial empire was founded. Sidon was the most prominent of the Phoenician cities during the Bronze Age, suggesting an early composition of this verse. Whereas later in history, Tyre rose to rival Sidon and would have been listed here if a later author would write this section of the Table.

Heth: Known as the Hittites, their massive empire once controlled all of Anatolia and much below that in what they called the “Land of Hatti.” They had extensive trade with Canaanite cities, perhaps even settling in Canaan. This is why they would be listed as the children of Canaan, despite being an Anatolian nation who were listed among the Japhetites. The Canaanite border reached Sidon at its North (Gen. 10:19), leaving out the vast swathes of Hittite land farther North of Sidon. Perhaps the author of the Table was unaware of the Hittite Empire farther North, or more likely, didn’t care much about that Empire, with only the local Hittites who colonized Canaan being of interest to Israelite society. This is especially so after the decline of the Hittite Empire in the 12th-century BCE after which their legacy remained primarily via the city-states they built up along the Levant and Northern Syria.

According to Gen. 23, the Hittites inhabited Hebron of Southern Canaan. Jud. 3:5 describes the Israelites as living among the Hittites and other nations in Canaan. Joshua 11:3 and 12:8 describes them as living in the mountainous region.

16

וְאֶת־הַיְבוּסִי֙ וְאֶת־הָ֣אֱמֹרִ֔י וְאֵ֖ת הַגִּרְגָּשִֽׁי׃

and the Jebusites, the Amorites, the Girgashites,

Jebusites: Described as living in the mountainous region of Israel (Jos. 11:3) and the inhabitants of Jerusalem before its conquest by King David (II Samuel 5:6).

Amorites: Called the Amurru in ancient Sumerian and Akkadian texts, these Semitic-speaking people inhabited and established many city-states in the Syria and Lebanon region, even going as far down the Levant as Canaan. The name origin seems to be referring to the Westerners of the Euphrates river, what is soon to be known by the Persians as Eber-Nari (Ever HaNahar in Heb., across the river in Eng.). The Israelites also conquered their Transjordan lands in addition to their Canaanite land (Deut. 2:24).

Girgashites: Apparently an indigenous peoples residing in Canaan. Their identity is uncertain although parallels have been made with the Qaraqisha (from “the land of the Karkisha” in Asia Minor), allies of the Hittites in their wars with Ramses II of Egypt in the 13th-century BCE.  Often they go unmentioned in the list of Canaanite tribes (e.g. Ex. 13:5), perhaps because of their small population or inferior strength relative to the other tribes.

17

וְאֶת־הַֽחִוִּ֥י וְאֶת־הַֽעַרְקִ֖י וְאֶת־הַסִּינִֽי׃

the Hivites, the Arkites, the Sinites,

Hivites: Identity unknown. According to Joshua 11:3, the Hivites resided in the North of Canaan under Mt. Hermon and more of them inhabited the city of Gibeon North of Jerusalem (Joshua 11:19).

Arkites: Arka was an ancient Phoenician city in Northern Lebanon.

Sinites: Mentioned in Isa. 49:12 with an uncertain locality. May be connected to the Sinai desert South of Canaan. Many scholars identify it with various localities in Northern Lebanon (near the aforementioned Arka) with similar names, such as Sinna, Sinum or Sini, and Syn.

Some identify it with the Chinese, called Sinim in modern Hebrew, but this is erroneous. The Chinese are far East, well beyond the nations mentioned in the Table context, and specifically the context of the Canaanite Phoenicians. Those who connect the Sinites with the Chinese usually have the agenda of having the Table cover all the nations of the Earth so as to keep Genesis infallible.

18

וְאֶת־הָֽאַרְוָדִ֥י וְאֶת־הַצְּמָרִ֖י וְאֶת־הַֽחֲמָתִ֑י וְאַחַ֣ר נָפֹ֔צוּ מִשְׁפְּח֖וֹת הַֽכְּנַעֲנִֽי׃

the Arvadites, the Zemarites, and the Hamathites. Afterward the clans of the Canaanites spread out.

Arvadites: Arwad, an island right off Tartus, Syria, is often mentioned in ancient texts as a significant Phoenician city.

Zemarites: In the Amarna tablets (B.C. 1400) Zemar, or Zumur, was one of the most important of the Phoenician cities and was situated between Tripoli and the aforementioned Arvad. They inhabited the town of Sumra.

Hamathites: Hamath was a large city in Syria, currently called Hama, near the Lebanon border and the aforementioned cities.

19

וַֽיְהִ֞י גְּב֤וּל הַֽכְּנַעֲנִי֙ מִצִּידֹ֔ן בֹּאֲכָ֥ה גְרָ֖רָה עַד־עַזָּ֑ה בֹּאֲכָ֞ה סְדֹ֧מָה וַעֲמֹרָ֛ה וְאַדְמָ֥ה וּצְבֹיִ֖ם עַד־לָֽשַׁע׃

(The [original] Canaanite territory extended from Sidon as far as Gerar, near Gaza, and as far as Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, and Zeboiim, near Lasha.)

Canaan: Inhabiting the land soon to be conquered by the Israelites, the Canaanites were never a politically unified nation or empire. They were an ethnic semitic speaking people living in the land of Canaan which was ruled by many city states and often vassals to the Egyptian empire.

As indicated from the previous verses, Canaan was both a general term for Phoenicians living more North than Sidon, and a subgroup living in Canaan South from Sidon.

Sodom and Gomorrah: These cities would have been destroyed in the 16th-century BCE according to Gen. 19 as well as archaeological findings. The site of these destroyed metropolitan cities is thought to be just South of the Dead Sea in the Southeast of modern-day Israel along its Jordan border.

The geographical marker using these cities as reference is perhaps reminiscent of the old cities destroyed not too long before the writing of this verse. Alternatively, these cities would have been long remembered in the oral traditions of the locals.

Gerar: Location unconfirmed, but from Gen. 20 and 26 it appears to be situated in the Judean desert near Beersheba.

Gaza: Stronghold of the future Philistines in Southwest Canaan, currently called the Gaza Strip. It sat along an important trade route connecting Egypt with Mesopotamia.

Lasha: Unknown locality.

20

אֵ֣לֶּה בְנֵי־חָ֔ם לְמִשְׁפְּחֹתָ֖ם לִלְשֹֽׁנֹתָ֑ם בְּאַרְצֹתָ֖ם בְּגוֹיֵהֶֽם׃

These are the descendants of Ham, according to their clans and languages, by their lands and nations.

21

וּלְשֵׁ֥ם יֻלַּ֖ד גַּם־ה֑וּא אֲבִי֙ כׇּל־בְּנֵי־עֵ֔בֶר אֲחִ֖י יֶ֥פֶת הַגָּדֽוֹל׃

Sons were also born to Shem, ancestor of all the descendants of Eber and older brother of Japheth.

Children of Shem: Overall, Shem represents many of the Semitic speaking nations of Northern Mesopotamia, Elam, the Israelites and Arabs from Abrahamic lineage, and the Eastern tribes of the Arabian Peninsula. However, since antiquity many nations have intermingled resulting in diversity among current world populations.

Eber: The Persians referred to the Western bank of the Euphrates as the Eber-Nari satrapy. Eber is the Hebrew equivalent of “over [the river].” Here however, Eber clearly refers to the Eastern side of the Euphrates River, reflecting the Western perspective of the author here.

22

בְּנֵ֥י שֵׁ֖ם עֵילָ֣ם וְאַשּׁ֑וּר וְאַרְפַּכְשַׁ֖ד וְל֥וּד וַֽאֲרָֽם׃

The descendants of Shem: Elam, Asshur, Arpachshad, Lud, and Aram.

Elam: Situated East of ancient Sumer in the Southernmost tip of Mesopotamia, this nation did not speak a Semitic language like the rest of Shem’s descendants.

Ashur: Deity-name for the Assyrians and city-name in Assyria as well.

Arpachshad: Identity unknown.

Lud: Mentioned earlier as Ludim in Gen. 10:13 under the Ham line in Africa. Lud here perhaps refers to the Lydians of Asia Minor, but this association is doubtful since that territory was placed under Japeth. Some scholars have associated the Biblical Lud with the Lubdu of Assyrian sources, who inhabited certain parts of western Media and Atropatene. This would reconcile the contradiction by assuming one African Ludim and another Asian Lubdu.

Aram: Arameans were a nation Southwest of Assyria, and often battled the Israelite Kingdom, leading to the eventual Israelite destruction in the 8th-century BCE.

23

וּבְנֵ֖י אֲרָ֑ם ע֥וּץ וְח֖וּל וְגֶ֥תֶר וָמַֽשׁ׃

The descendants of Aram: Uz, Hul, Gether, and Mash.

Uz: According to the War Scroll, one of the Dead Sea Scrolls, the land of Uz existed beyond the Euphrates, possibly in relation to Aram. In Column 2 verse 11, it is noted, “they shall fight against the rest of the sons of Aramea: Uz, Hul, Togar, and Mesha, who are beyond the Euphrates.”

According to the book of Lamentations (4:21), the Edomites lived in the land of Uz.

The Land of Uz is mentioned as the hometown of Job (1:1) and somewhere in “the East” (1:3). The east may be synonymous with Mt. East mentioned in Gen. 10:30 probably located in Northwest Arabia. Job 1:15 describes Job’s invaders as being Sabeans (Sheba), also mentioned among the tribes of Arabia in Gen. 10:28, suggesting proximity between Sheba and Uz. In Job 1:17, Chaldeans are attackers of Job’s flock, suggesting proximity to the Chaldeans of Southern Mesopotamia as well. Jeremiah 25:21 also mentions the Land of Uz in the context of kingdoms South of Judea.

Hul: Location unknown.

Gether: Location unknown.

Mash: Location unknown.

24

וְאַרְפַּכְשַׁ֖ד יָלַ֣ד אֶת־שָׁ֑לַח וְשֶׁ֖לַח יָלַ֥ד אֶת־עֵֽבֶר׃

Arpachshad begot Shelah, and Shelah begot Eber.

Arpachshad: Possibly a reference to Arpad, in Northwest Syria (probably modern-day Tell Rifaat, Syria).

Shelah: Identity unknown.

Eber: See commentary to 10:21.

25

וּלְעֵ֥בֶר יֻלַּ֖ד שְׁנֵ֣י בָנִ֑ים שֵׁ֣ם הָֽאֶחָ֞ד פֶּ֗לֶג כִּ֤י בְיָמָיו֙ נִפְלְגָ֣ה הָאָ֔רֶץ וְשֵׁ֥ם אָחִ֖יו יׇקְטָֽן׃

Two sons were born to Eber: the name of the first was Peleg, for in his days the earth was divided; and the name of his brother was Joktan.

Earth was divided: Probably referring to the upcoming narrative of the splitting of languages (cf Ps. 55:10). Alternatively, referring to the invention of irrigation canals (palgu means water channels in Akkadian, a Semitic language Hebrew partially derives from). According to those who believe in the scientific accuracy of Genesis, this verse can be referencing the split of the continents known as continental drift (a concept unknown to the ancients, causing most bible scholars to reject this interpretation). Possibly referring to a split of alliances fighting each other. Can also refer to an earthquake or some other unknown event.

Joktan: Some connect this with the Southern Arabian Qahtanites. Several other indicators point to Arabia as being the descendants of Joktan. Josephus identifies Joktan as the father of the Indians, but there is little evidence to support this claim.

26

וְיׇקְטָ֣ן יָלַ֔ד אֶת־אַלְמוֹדָ֖ד וְאֶת־שָׁ֑לֶף וְאֶת־חֲצַרְמָ֖וֶת וְאֶת־יָֽרַח׃

Joktan begot Almodad, Sheleph, Hazarmaveth, Jerah,

Almodad: Location unknown.

Sheleph: Possibly referring to the ancient port-town of As-Salif in Western Yemen.

Hazarmaveth: Etymology from “dwelling of death”, identified by most historians as the current day Hadramaut in Eastern Yemen (a city also etymologically related to “death”) and near the other place-names descending from Joktan.

Jerah: In Hebrew, Yerah means month or moon. The chief deity of Arabia in pre-Islamic times was the moon deity.

27

וְאֶת־הֲדוֹרָ֥ם וְאֶת־אוּזָ֖ל וְאֶת־דִּקְלָֽה׃

Hadoram, Uzal, Diklah,

Hadoram: Etymology may derive from darom, Semitic for “south”, similar to the Hebrew word for Yemen, Teman, which is synonymous with South.

Uzal: Possibly the early name of the modern district of Azal near the Yemenite capital Sana’a.

Diklah: Etymology from dekel, meaning palm tree. Perhaps referring to one of the many Yemenite oases that featured palm trees.

28

וְאֶת־עוֹבָ֥ל וְאֶת־אֲבִֽימָאֵ֖ל וְאֶת־שְׁבָֽא׃

Obal, Abimael, Sheba,

Obal: Abil, Yemen located South of Sana’a in modern times perhaps stems from this original name. In I Chronicles 1:22 the name is spelled Abil or Ebal.

Abimael: Location unknown. Etymology from Hebrew Abi-el, God is our father.

Sheba: Already mentioned in verse 7 under the Hamitic lineage that also covered the Arabian region. Perhaps a mingling of ethnicities can account for the duplication of Sheba and Havilah, or differences of opinion on their origins. Sheba is also mentioned among the descendants of Abraham (Gen. 25:3).

29

וְאֶת־אוֹפִ֥ר וְאֶת־חֲוִילָ֖ה וְאֶת־יוֹבָ֑ב כׇּל־אֵ֖לֶּה בְּנֵ֥י יׇקְטָֽן׃

Ophir, Havilah, and Jobab; all these were the descendants of Joktan.

Ophir: Known for its precious stones and gold (I Kings 9:28, 10:11).

Havillah: Already mentioned in verse 7 in the Hamitic line. Perhaps an intermingling of ethnicities can account for the duplication of Sheba and Havilah, or differences of opinion concerning their origins.

Jobab: Location unknown.

30

וַֽיְהִ֥י מוֹשָׁבָ֖ם מִמֵּשָׁ֑א בֹּאֲכָ֥ה סְפָ֖רָה הַ֥ר הַקֶּֽדֶם׃

Their settlements extended from Mesha as far as Sephar, the hill country to the east.

East: This term is used several times in biblical literature. It seems to refer to the entire East front of Israel, including Arabia and Mesopotamia. In Gen. 29:1 it refers to the Syrians living near Haran. In Gen. 25:6 and Jud. 6:3 it refers to Northern Arabia and southwest Jordan until Assyria (Gen. 25:18). In Ez. 25:10 and Is. 11:14 it refers to the land of the Ammonites and Edomites in southwest Jordan. In Jeremiah 49:28 it refers to Arabia once again. In Job 1:3 it refers to the Land of Uz, apparently in the Edomite region north of Arabia (see commentary to Gen. 10:23).

Mesha: Location unknown. However, it may be connected to the Mt Mashu that Gilgamesh passes along on his journey to Dilmun, a place identified in Eastern Arabia. (Depending on which version of the Gilgamesh Epic is used, there being both Sumerian and Akkadian versions, Mashu can either be in the Lebanon region or in Eastern Arabia, in connection with the sun-god Utu.)

Sephar: Identified by most scholars as Zafar, Yemen, a Southwest port-city once a prestigious trading town and attested to in many ancient documents.